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Francis Galton
(1822-1911)
Father of eugenics
Dr Martin Brookes
December 2001
Genetics is one of the fastest growing and most influential sciences of the 21st century, as illustrated by the recent decoding of the human genetic blueprint. But while few would deny that the Human Genome Project is an incredible achievement, some are concerned that it could lead to a new and frightening era of eugenics. Eugenics is the science of controlled breeding in order to increase desirable inherited characteristics. And its founder was Francis Galton.
Eugenics origins
Although it has a modern context, the origins of the eugenics controversy are as old as genetics itself, and both can be traced back to Galton. A distinguished and educated Victorian and cousin of Charles Darwin, Galton is a perfect example of conflict and contradiction in the world of science. We all acknowledge the good that genetics and medical science can do for us, but the fact remains that human genetics was a science born out of prejudice. Today's Galton Laboratory at University College London, now consumed by the Department of Biology, is the descendant of the Eugenics Record Office, founded by Galton in 1904. It was the first human genetics laboratory in the world.
Early life
Galton was born in Birmingham, UK into an illustrious scientific family. Living at a time when much of science, but particularly biology, was still in its infancy, he excelled in a range of subjects that would be unthinkable today. His boundless energy and restless curiosity were obvious from an early age. As a young man he gained a taste for travel and showed himself to be a fearless and dedicated explorer. Like his contemporary, Livingstone, he illuminated large chunks of uncharted Africa to European eyes. On his return to Britain, he re-invented himself as a meteorological pioneer, producing the first accurate weather charts and coining the term 'anticyclone'.
Genetic pioneer
In the 1860s he changed direction again. This time, it was heredity and evolution that caught his eye. In typically modest fashion, Galton set out single-handedly to measure mankind. Or at least the part of it living within a 50 mile radius of his house. He became the first person to describe human variety in scientific terms. Galton painted numerical pictures of human differences among individuals, families and populations. From these foundations, human genetics was born.
Scientific appetite
Age did little to quell his momentum and he continued to forage far and wide for his scientific fixes. When he wasn't coming up with novel ways of measuring intelligence, fingerprints or noses, he was devising new ways of analysing his ever-growing mountain of data. The statistical concepts of correlation and regression, for instance, both stem from his busy mind. Nothing, it seemed, could escape his voracious scientific appetite. Studies in visual perception, devising a language for extraterrestrial communication, and lessons in self-induced psychosis were all part of an average day in the life of Francis Galton. From criminology to meteorology, genetics to statistics, and anthropology to psychology, Galton walked all over the scientific landscape.
Dark motives
When he died, Galton left the world with a complex and confusing legacy. While many of his scientific achievements were simple acts of inspiration that can be applauded unambiguously, his interest in heredity was fuelled by a darker motive that has undermined his reputation.
Galton was convinced that variations in human intellect, energy, athleticism and just about everything else were an innate, inborn quality. In the nature/nurture debate, he came down with a resounding thump of the side of nature. The poor in society, he asserted, were not hapless victims of circumstance. They were poor because they were biologically inferior. In Galton's view, the slums of Britain's industrial cities were breeding grounds for the worst characteristics of humanity.
Concerned about the uncontrolled spread of this 'inferior' race, he began advocating state intervention. Humanity had an obligation to take control of its own evolution and the remedy, he argued, was simple. The most able should be encouraged to have more children through tax reductions and other incentives. The less able, meanwhile, should be denied the opportunity to breed. He did not coin the word 'eugenics' until 1883, but by then his format for the biological improvement of the human race was well under way.
Naïve vision
Looking back from the new millennium, Galton's philosophy of human progress looks sinister when set against the excesses of 20th century racism. Twenty years after his death, Galton's eugenics vision had mutated into the Nazi nightmare of 'racial cleansing'. If he wasn't turning in his grave, then he certainly should have been. To be fair, Galton never embraced the extreme measures that were adopted by later eugenicists in Germany, America and elsewhere. His brand of eugenics was a naïve, idealistic vision of Utopia. It was doomed to failure by the very social divisiveness it advocated, and the weak scientific foundation on which it was based.
Familiar territory
Today, the Human Genome Project is re-opening old debates. With the deluge of new genetic information, there is concern that we may be moving back to a Galtonian, gene-centric view of the world. A world where human variety and the problems of society can be conveniently and simply pinned down to our DNA, and where prejudice and bigotry can flourish. Who can forget the infamous headline in the Daily Mail a few years ago: 'Abortion hope after 'gay genes' findings'. As we look to the future and to a new century in genetics, the indications are that Galton's influence is not going to go away.
You may also be interested in these other Channel 4 articles
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Cloning Ourselves – How Close Are We?
The truth behind recent cloning claims, the reasons for doing it and the dangers involved.
Cloning Ourselves – Ethical Dilemmas
The potential to make a living clone is already with us, here are the ethical arguments laid bare.
Cloning a Cure – How Close Are We?
How cloned human embryos could heal the sick, including the methods and the motivation.
Cloning a Cure – Ethical Dilemmas
A way of healing the sick that involves destroying tiny human embryos. Is it worth the cost?
Immortality – Hype or Hope?
How cloned stem cells will leave no branch of medicine untouched. How long would you like to live for?
Cloning FAQs
Answers to some commonly posed questions. Including the difference between the two types of cloning and what stem cell therapy could do for us.
Dolly
The life and times of Dolly the sheep, the first ever cloned mammal.
Severino Antinori biography
The independent fertility specialist who wants to clone whole human beings.
Find out more
Channel 4 is not responsible for the content of third party sites
Websites
History of the UK Human Genome Project
www.wellcome.ac.uk/doc%5Fwtd002952.html
This website provides a detailed chronology of the UK's contribution to the project, an international collaboration involving thousands of scientists from 20 centres in six countries.
Your Genome.Org
www.yourgenome.org
Provides information about the human genome with competitions, news and forum.
New Scientist
www.newscientist.com/hottopics/cloning
Archive of New Scientist articles on cloning and genetic engineering.
Books
Six Experiments that Changed the World (Channel 4, 2000) £3.50 (inc P&P). Cheque or postal order payable to Channel 4 Television, send to: Six Experiments that Changed the World, PO Box 400, Wetherby, LS23 7LG or phone + 44 (0) 8701 246 444
Looks at the lives and works of Galilei, Newton, Faraday, Curie, Einstein and also Gregor Mendel, who discovered the basic laws of heredity and genetics. Also details how his revolutionary experiments were conducted.
A Life of Sir Francis Galton: From African exploration to the birth of eugenics by Nicholas Wright Gillham (Oxford University Press, 2001) £22.50
Few scientists have made lasting contributions to as many fields as Francis Galton.
The Impact of the Gene: From Mendel's peas to designer babies by Colin Tudge (Hill & Wang, 2001) £16.99
In the mid-19th century a friar, Mendel, discovered the basic laws of heredity. Tudge examines the influence of Mendel's ideas, considering the evolution of genetics as a science, and addressing questions of ethics, the public's fears about cloning and eugenics.
Alas Poor Darwin by Hilary Rose and Steven Rose (Vintage, 2001) £8.99
At the beginning of the 21st century, genes are used to explain many aspects of human life, from social inequalities to health, sexuality and criminality. This book offers a criticism of this so-called evolutionary psychology, arguing that it rests on shaky empirical evidence, flawed premises and unexamined political presuppositions.
Clones, Genes and Immortality: Ethics and the genetic revolution by John Harris (Oxford University Press, 1998) £8.99
An account of the ethics of human biotechnology, reproductive biology and genetics, including genetic screening, life and health insurance, designer babies and cloning.
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