Background
Emigration and immigration are topics which continue to interest and concern people throughout the world, ever since our pre-historic ancestors gave up their nomadic way of life and settled down in one place. Some see emigration and immigration as threats to their community or nation. Others see them as opportunities for individuals and communities to widen their horizons and enrich each other.
Even in the hearts and minds of individual migrants, it is often impossible to disentangle the sorrow of leaving home and loved ones from the hope of a new and better life - exile or opportunity? Attitudes were and are often biased, subjective and contradictory - for example, my group (the Scots?) should be free to go anywhere and benefit the world, but other groups (the Irish?) should be kept out because they are different and will be a burden.
As the barriers of 'national' history are increasingly breached, historians are showing renewed interest in comparative history and, in particular, the impact of migration both on the country of origin and on the places of settlement, including the native populations. Added to this is the huge upsurge in research into family history, aided by the Internet, which is revealing the scale of regional and global migration.
With its long and sustained history of emigration, Scotland is an ideal subject for studying the topic. Before the eighteenth century large numbers of Scots emigrated to other parts of Europe, including eastern Europe, Scandinavia and Ulster. But following the 1707 Union and the growth of the British Empire, the focus of emigration from Scotland shifted to Britain's overseas colonies. Scots were regarded as partners in the imperial enterprise and, with their common language, and educational and military traditions, they played a disproportionate role in establishing, administering and developing the Empire.
In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Scotland lost a bigger percentage of its population through emigration than any other European country except Ireland and possibly Norway. This has led Professor Tom Devine to refer to 'the paradox of Scottish emigration'. Ireland and Norway were both predominantly rural countries and fitted the classic pattern of migration from a relatively poor agricultural economy to more industrially advanced and/or rapidly developing economies. But nineteenth century Scotland was one of the world's leading industrial nations and one of the richest countries on earth. As such it would be expected to attract immigrants (like the Irish), rather than encourage emigrants.
The explanation offered for this apparent contradiction centres on the nature of the Scottish economy, especially its reliance on the heavy industries of coal, steel and ship-building - which were particularly affected by the trade cycle's peaks of prosperity and periods of depression. Statistics indicate that periods of high emigration tended to coincide with periods of trade depression. In addition, wages in Scotland were relatively low and housing conditions remained relatively poor and overcrowded right into the second half of the twentieth century. Workers in both industry and agriculture however, had developed skills and experience which were at a premium in the other parts of the world which were undergoing economic development and industrialisation. There they could enjoy greater opportunities and command higher wages; to the extent that temporary emigration became a widespread phenomenon, with about one-third of emigrants returning to Scotland.
The popular impression of nineteenth century Scottish emigration is dominated by the image of evicted and destitute Highlanders, forced out of their native glens and onto emigrant ships, to make way for sheep. Quite apart from the issue of the extent to which this is itself a caricature of Highland history, it must be emphasised that, in the nineteenth century, Highlanders formed a declining proportion of emigrants, as the majority came from the rural and urban Lowlands.
Emigration from the Highlands had developed in three broad phases. The eighteenth century had seen considerable voluntary group emigration, often led by dispossessed tacksmen, in the face of agricultural modernisation by clan chiefs and other landowners. At the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth century, emigration had been discouraged on economic and military grounds, but by the 1830s it was generally back in favour, both to relieve economic pressures at home and to build up the Empire abroad. By then however, emigration from the Highlands was being outstripped by the increasing numbers leaving the Lowlands for improved opportunities abroad. At the same time migration within Scotland was widespread and a proportion of Lowland emigrants must have been step migrants from the Highlands.
Although there were various schemes and agencies promoting and assisting emigration from both Highlands and Lowlands, the majority of emigrants were not the very poor, but rather those who could afford the ticket, the expenses of the journey and the other costs of resettlement. But we must be careful with such generalisations and bear in mind that we are dealing with millions of individual cases, ranging from the completely destitute, whose passage was paid for, to the extremely rich, who were intent on furthering successful business interests.
There has been relatively little research on Scottish emigration to England - the single most important destination for Scots, partly because it has tended to be viewed as internal British migration, and also because Scots are less 'visible' in England, tending not to form identifiable communities. Although Scots also emigrated to Africa, Asia and South America, the course focuses on North America and Australasia - the area where larger numbers settled, and where their descendants are generally more 'visible'.
The USA, with its dynamic economy, was the most popular destination for Scots after England, despite British disapproval. The USA was closely followed by Canada - although, in a significant number of cases, only as a stepping stone to the USA. Towards the end of the nineteenth and into the twentieth century, Canada became the main overseas destination, partly as a result of US restrictions on immigration. South Africa tended to attract more of the better-off, middle class emigrants, while the less well-off took advantage of assisted passages to Australia. New Zealand tended to attract organised groups such as those who settled in Otago and founded Dunedin, as well as a considerable number of 'step' migrants from Australia.
While lamenting the circumstances which allegedly forced emigrants away in the first place, Scots have traditionally taken a great pride in the role played by these 'exiles' in their adopted lands. The tea-towel industry has perpetuated 'Wha's like us?' lists of achievers of Scottish ancestry which history teaching has generally turned its back on. While recognising the achievements and contributions of outstanding individuals in various fields, historians are now seeking a more balanced and less hubristic assessment of the experience of Scots emigrants. In particular, evidence is being brought to light concerning the experience of a wider variety of emigrants, their varying motives and degrees of success or failure.
One issue being considered is the role of Scots in the treatment of native populations. There are instances both of extreme brutality, such as the massacre of 150 Aborigines at Warrigal Creek in 1843 by Angus MacMillan and his 'Highland Brigade', and also of sympathetic intervention and concern on the part of individual Scots, for example the successful Californian businessman, Hugo Reid from Cardross who championed the causes of Native Americans, women and slaves, at about the same time. Scots also played a significant part in official dealings such the Maori Wars, and the events leading up to it.
The main difficulty in assessing the Scots' contribution is the lack of any systematic comparative study of the role and contributions of other groups. Focussing exclusively on the contribution of one particular group such as the Scots and their descendants can lead to an exaggerated impression of their influence, as well as to stereotypical associations of particular characteristics with particular groups.
Apart from the record of prominent individuals, the most obvious evidence of Scots' influence is to be found in personal and place names of Scottish origin, and cultural organisations such as St Andrews Societies, Burns Clubs, Highland and Clan Gatherings, and Pipe Bands. In terms of wider social impact, Scottish religious and educational influence would appear to be most significant, followed by influence in the realms of politics, business and industry - although in the latter cases, the Scottish influence is often harder to distinguish from the overall British contribution.
As well as having a knowledge and understanding of the reasons for emigration and the role of Scots emigrants, students have also to develop Enquiry Skills of interpreting, evaluating and comparing sources of evidence. At Higher Still Intermediate 2 level they also have to research and prepare an Extended Response.
Most publications on Scottish emigration tend to be secondary accounts based on unpublished primary source materials, but the Scottish Records Office has published five very useful booklets of primary source material; one on Scots Emigrants in general and one each on the Scots in America, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. Marjory Harper's two-volume work on Emigration from North-East Scotland contains a large number of primary source extracts, as does her subsequent work on Emigration from Scotland Between the Wars. The Dunedin Multimedia CD-Roms - 'Saints and Squatters - the Scots in Australia' and 'Immigrants and Exiles' - also carry primary source extracts. Jim Hewitson's books - 'Tam Blake & Co: the Story of the Scots in America' and 'Far Off in Sunlit Places: Stories of the Scots in Australia and New Zealand' - contain a considerable number of photographs.
Other materials suitable for students can be found in:
- Leaving Scotland - Mona McLeod (NMS 1996)
- The History of Emigration from Scotland - Mike Hirst (Franklin Watts 1987)
- Emigration from Scotland - Douglas Lawson (Longmans 1996)
- Immigrants and Exiles - Sydney Wood (HSDU support materials 1998)
- Immigrants and Exiles - Duncan Toms & Sydney Wood (Hodder & Stoughton 2000 - forthcoming)
