The series 'Race in the 20th Century' begins by outlining the history of the British Empire in Africa and the Indian sub-continent. The nature of imperial rule and propaganda, and the independence of the British colonies are all included. The focus of all three programmes is on the experiences of 'black' people within the British Empire, the United States and Britain both during and after colonialism.

It is essential that users of the programme have an understanding of the terms 'race' and 'black' and how they are used in these Net Notes.

The words 'race' and 'black' can be defined in the following ways:

'Race'
There is no biological validity (truth) behind the idea of 'race'. However it is a term which people use to describe others e.g. the black 'race'. Social scientists and historians tend to use the term in quotation marks, to show that it is a social construct not based in fact. A social construct just means that the word is 'an idea' (a false one in this case) rather than a 'reality'. In short, there is no such thing as 'race' but some people think there is and the word 'race' is used to refer to this attitude.

'Black'
In Britain today we use the term 'black' either about people of African, African-Caribbean and Asian origin (taken as a group). Or as in the phrase 'black and Asian', the term 'black' referring only to those of African and African-Caribbean origin. The expressions 'non-white', 'coloured' and 'half-caste' are outdated and generally found offensive by black people, since they represent an aspect of white ethnocentricity (view of the world). 'Mixed race' and 'dual heritage' have replaced the term 'half-caste'.

The use of these words is not about biology or science but about culture and power, about the way one group 'sees' another group in relation to themselves. Who 'owns' the words is also a reflection of how people see themselves and others. For example, 'coloured' was used by white people to describe the black community whereas 'black' has been used by the black community to express pride and resistance.

Both the mass media and historical thought also reflect and

reinforce the majority culture which can be and has been racist. The archive extracts in the programmes, therefore, can be used to find out about:

In a This Week television programme in 1964, supporters of Malcolm X (see 'Civil Rights'), when asked whether he was teaching race hatred, said:

'He's not teaching hate, he's teaching history, and since the American white man has used his control over the press and over the text books and over all forms of media to make it appear that he has done us a favour by bringing us here and enslaving us, then the honourable Elijah Mohammed has to re-write history.'

(Source: 'Black Muslims – Malcolm X', This Week, 1963)

The programme 'Empire' shows the origins and nature of 20th century racism and helps to explain some of the causes of Britain's present day ethnic composition. The particular phase of migration into Britain from the Commonwealth and colonies after 1945 was due to the economic boom and consequent labour shortage after the war. This was at a time when poverty and high unemployment were common in the Caribbean and Indian sub-continent. Much of the racism experienced by these groups was (and is) rooted in 19th century imperialist attitudes towards the 'uncivilised' colonised, who were portrayed as head-hunters, cannibals, polygamists and black magic practitioners.

There are other ethnic minorities who also suffer from racism, such as the Irish, Jews, Turks and travellers, who live in Britain today. Their experiences are referred to both in the background and in the activities but the focus is on the 'black' communities – the visible 'black' race.

Causes of Colonialism in Africa

Extract 1

Sequence of shots of imperial images that show farming (bananas, sheep, wheat) in the colonies.

There were various reasons why Britain and other European powers colonised parts of Africa in the 19th century. As the above extract suggests, economic causes were very important. Britain could use her colonies to get cheap raw materials and as a market for her own goods.

Political causes were also very important. The size of the empire gave prestige to Britain and greater military power in the event of war. In 1919, although USA was richer, Britain had the biggest empire; therefore, she could also think of herself as being the most powerful country. As the 1919 Morning Post newspaper stated, 'Count the empire as one, and we need call no other nation master.'

There were also social and cultural causes of imperialism – causes that were more to do with the way British people thought about both themselves and others. These attitudes made colonialism possible and are long-term causes of the racist attitudes still held by some people in Britain today. During the time of the British Empire, the phrase 'White man's burden' was used to justify the behaviour of the colonisers towards the colonised. Rudyard Kipling wrote this poem about why England should colonise:

Take up the white man's burden
The savage wars of peace
Fill full the mouth of famine
And bid the sickness cease.

Many British genuinely saw themselves as having a duty to 'look after' the African and Indian people whom they ruled. As Lord Curzon said in 1923:

'I think and hope that we (the British) have conveyed (given) the conviction (belief) that whatever other countries or governments may do, the British government is never untrue to its word, and is never disloyal to its colleagues or allies, never does anything underhand or mean; and if this conviction is widespread – as I believe it to be – that is the real basis of the moral authority which the British Empire has long exerted and I believe will long continue to exert in the affairs of mankind.'

(Source: Lawrence, James, The Rise and Fall of the British Empire, London, Abacus, 1998)

Like many others in the British ruling class, Curzon saw Britain as having a greater moral authority than other countries, a sort of global referee – civilising other peoples and making sure that all countries 'behaved themselves'.

Behind the idea of the White Man's Burden lay a strong belief in the superiority of the white man compared to the inferior 'black'. The origin of these ideas lay in the slave trade.

The slave trade and sugar

By 1650, many titled and rich families in Britain owned one or two slaves, but it was not until the demand for sugar increased after 1650 that the slave trade really took off. Sugar became very popular in the new drinks of the time – tea, coffee, chocolate. The crops were grown in the Caribbean and Negro slaves used to do the work. As a Caribbean planter stated:

'It is as impossible for a Man to make sugar without the assistance of Negroes, as to make Bricks without Straw.'

(Source: Fryer, Peter, Staying Power: The history of black people in Britain, London, Pluto Press, 984, p.14)

The slave trade was very profitable for the British and funded early industrialisation. In a triangular journey, on the first leg, beer, glass, textiles, guns, cutlery were shipped to Africa and exchanged for Negro slaves. The slaves were then shipped on the terrible Middle Passage (the middle journey of the triangle) to the Caribbean, where they were made to work in the plantations. Finally, the ships loaded up with sugar, spices, rum and tobacco, and then returned to Britain to sell their cargo. The ships were never empty and labour in the Caribbean was free. Early factory industry in Britain was stimulated by the demand for the British goods, and cities and ports boomed during the slave trade. Cities which boomed at this time include London, Manchester, Birmingham, Liverpool and Bristol.

By the time the slave trade was made illegal by the Abolition of the Slave Trade Act in 1807, racism had become well established in English culture. Indeed, racism was essential to both the slave trade and the Empire. It was racism, the idea that one group was inferior to (not as good as) another group, which made it possible to capture and rule 'other' people. If black people were inferior, they 'deserved' to be treated with less respect than other groups of people.

These ideas about superiority and inferiority were advanced by some people who tried to use science to 'prove' racism. They used ideas about evolution, i.e. the development of human beings over time, to claim that one race was better than another. Writers such as Edward Long constructed hierarchies of 'race' built largely around skin colour – whites were placed at the top of the hierarchy while blacks were put at the bottom.

Extract 2 (0.55)

Maps showing dominions and the empire.

This racist attitude helps to explain the distinction that had arisen by 1920 between a 'dominion' and a 'colony'. The 'dominions', comprising New Zealand, Australia, South Africa and Canada, had political independence. At the same time, they agreed to remain associated with Britain within the Commonwealth. These 'dominions' were ruled by white people and, in contrast to the 'black' people of Africa and the Indian sub-continent, were seen as capable of self-rule. In Africa and the Indian sub-continent the British saw themselves as 'paternal' to the native people, as having a duty to educate them and rule over them.

Propaganda and nature of imperial rule

As Extract 2 states, the East and West African dependencies had a population of 45 million governed by a total of 1200 imperial administrators. The number of administrators compared to the number of people being governed or ruled was relatively small. For example, Kenya had 117 colonial administrators to an estimated population of 12 million.

The power of Britain over its Empire was sustained, therefore, not by military power but by ideological power. It was the idea that the whites were superior and had a 'duty' to rule others that made colonial rule possible. The role of propaganda was therefore crucial in feeding and sustaining this idea about the need for white rule.

Cinema had an important function and purpose in this imperial propaganda. Ideas about Britain's 'moral authority' were promoted and preserved by films. Most of the population went to the cinema and there were a range of imperial films, including Lives of a Bengal Lancer, Charge of the Light Brigade, Gunga Din and The Sun Never Sets.

Extract 3 (1.19)

Sanders of the River (1935)

Alexander Korda, a leading film producer, made three imperial films including Sanders of the River. It was filmed mainly in Britain, with Cardiff dockers used as extras. The story had been written by Edgar Wallace and was a best seller. Stories about the empire were very popular at the time, for example, Rudyard Kipling's work. These stories also served to both reflect and reinforce cultural superiority.

In the film, the Empire – represented by the character Sanders – mainly is a force for progress (development and change for the better). The British are shown as protecting the 'primitive' Africans. Chief Bosambo understands and appreciates this. He admires and looks up to Sanders and is grateful for his rule. He represents the 'Good African'. The relationship between him and Sanders is like that of a teacher and a child. The African past, resistant to colonialism, is represented by King Mofolaba. He represents the 'Bad African'. He carries on 'slave raiding'. He is presented as sly and cruel. He wants to be rid of British rule, not in the interests of the Africans but in his own interests, so that he can tyrannise his own people without the British stopping him.

This narrative (story-line) enables the British to present themselves as the 'goodies'. They are civilising the Africans by making them stop slave raiding and educating them. Bosambo's son will go to the government college for chief's sons to learn how to rule like Sanders. It is men like Sanders who know what is best for Africa.

Korda made the film partly because he believed in the empire system and wanted to support it. Sanders of the River and other films made by Korda worked well as propaganda because the ideas they presented were simple and included colour, romance and excitement. The message of the film was simple: the British brought peace and order to Africa – they civilised it. Sanders' rule is based on his personality and charisma. Chief Mofolaba and his men outnumber Sanders and his men in the 'palaver' (see 'Mind Your Langauge' in the activities section) shown, but Mofolaba obeys Sanders because of the strength of Sanders' personality. He has moral authority and rules with benevolent paternalism.

Paul Robeson was the American actor who played Bosambo in Sanders of River. He was the only 'black' actor to get such leading roles in Britain in the 1930s. At that time, many 'black' people were used as extras in films but not in leading roles. Robeson was in the top ten box office list in 1937. When he saw the film, Robeson was so shocked by its overt racism that he asked that his name be removed from the credits.

In general, the film was praised by British critics and newspapers on its release. However, not everyone liked the film. Dr Nnamdi Akizwe wrote in 1937 that the film was based on negative stereotypes of the Africans and an equally false view of the administrators who were often, in reality, drunk and corrupt. He stated that the film greatly undervalued African culture and concluded, 'I feel that what is being paraded in the world today as art or literature is nothing short of propaganda.'

(Quoted in Richards, Jeffrey, Korda's Empire: Politics and Film in Sanders of the River, The Drum and The Four Feathers, p.130 Nos.5-6, 1980)

Cinema and literature were not the only ways to promote the Empire. The royal family also played their part and were shown doing so on British newsreels.

Extract 4 (3.44)

Sequence of shots of George V and his son, the Prince of Wales.

Extract 5

Prince of Wales Tour of the Empire (1920s)

The prince is shown travelling around, meeting crowds of people who bow and wave. The impression is one of loyalty and unity. Horses, carriages and flags reinforce the pomp and ceremony of the occasion.

In the 1920s, the future Edward VIII was sent to visit the Empire by the Prime Minister, Lloyd George, in a 'public relations' exercise to get more support for Britain from the Empire's subjects. This occurred at a time when the pressure for independence was increasing. In August 1919, he left for Canada. Over a period of nine years he visited the West Indies, New Zealand, Australia, India, the Gambia, the Gold Coast, Nigeria, South Africa, Kenya and Uganda. Newsreels showed images of different peoples cheering, waving flags and bowing. They were portrayed as united by their loyalty to the crown and, therefore, to the Empire.

The visits, therefore, had two purposes: to strengthen loyalty to Crown and Empire, both in the colonies and in Britain.

As Billy Hughes, Prime Minister for Australia stated during the tour:

'The Australian people see in you all that our glorious Empire stands for, that deathless spirit of liberty, of progress, that distinguishes it from all other empires, ancient or modern.'

Decline of the Empire 1930s

However, by the 1930s, it was becoming increasingly clear that the strength of the British Empire was not as real as the propaganda tried to convey. Pressure for independence from India and other colonies became more intense at a time when the world depression hit Britain badly. In 1931, the 'Imperial Preference' was re-introduced by the British government. Its purpose was to acquire raw materials and cheap foods and to keep Britain's outlets for trade at a time when the international market was shrinking (less countries were buying British goods).

Extract 6 (5.14)

Sequence of shots of posters promoting the Empire. These posters show the 'Empire's Strength' used to sell products such as tea and rubber.

Posters were used to promote products from the colonies and in the 1930s, the government began to commission its own films to support imperial trade.

Extract 7 (5.35)

One Family (1930)

In this film a young boy is shown the origins of the ingredients of a Christmas pudding. In an extended dream sequence he is helped by goddess figures from each of the dominions to collect ingredients such as grapes and oranges.

This film was made by Empire Marketing Board, an organisation set up to promote the Empire. The film division made newsreels and documentary films which were loaned to schools and youth groups free of charge. The films were believed to be 'true' or factual and were presented as such. In fact they were more like advertising in the way they interpreted the 'truth'.

This film shows how contact with the colonies enriched the lives of those living in Britain by giving them access to new and different foods. However, it does not show the economic exploitation that lay behind the imperial economy.

The British Empire and the Second World War

Extract 8 (7.08)

Sequence of shots showing imperial troops marching and fighting.

Caption giving the number of imperial troops in the Second World War (five million, two million of whom were volunteers from India).

In wartime, Britain expected military and political support from all her dominions and colonies. As far as the Australian government was concerned, this was a reciprocal arrangement. On 25 August 1939, the Australian Prime Minister Menzies said, 'We in Australia are involved because the destruction or defeat of Great Britain would be the destruction and defeat of the British Empire and leave us with a precarious tenure of our own independence.'

This suggested that he wanted Britain's assistance to defend Australia; therefore, in return, Australia was prepared to fight for Britain. Not everyone felt the same. As the programme states, many Indians were outraged that Britain should declare war on their behalf without consulting them.

The 'black' people of the Empire made a range of contributions during the Second World War – West Indian pilots in RAF, Indian soldiers in the Middle East, West African troops fighting in Burma, factory workers on the Home Front, nurses, members of the ATS and the WAAF. Different kinds of aid were given to Britain – money, materials and people. The money was spent on tanks, aeroplanes and ambulances. Enormous amounts of rubber, oil and food produce were exported from Africa and the West Indies to Britain during the war. By October 1943, £23.3 million had been donated by the Empire to Britain as gifts, and £10.7 million as interest free loans. At the end of the war Britain owed £1200 million to India.

(Source: Together Imperial War Museum)

Although many Indians did volunteer to fight, the changing attitudes towards the 'motherland' meant that propaganda was needed to persuade 'black' people to fight for a white man's Empire.

Extract 9 (7.39)

India Marches (1941)

This extract is from a film sponsored by the Government of India and the Ministry of Information. The film was produced by Bombay Talkies, an Indian production company. It shows the training of the Indian Army Regiment, the 15th Punjab and their fighting in Libya under General Wavell.

The stress of the commentary and the imagery is on unity, for example, the film commentary states, 'these Indian soldiers: Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs live not as Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs but as Indians who are proud to be members of a great commonwealth.'

This extract and other films of a similar kind, for example Defenders of India and Arms from India, show the huge contribution made by India to the war effort.

Extract 10 (9.27)

'West Indies Calling' (1943)

This extract is from a Ministry of Information film produced by Paul Rotha in 1943. It shows a BBC broadcast being made to explain to the British people the West Indian's contribution to the war effort. The broadcast is compered by Una Marson, a Jamaican woman who had been one of Anthony Eden's private secretaries. This extract shows Flying Officer Ulric Cross, a bomber navigator who was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC) and Distinguished Service Order (DSO). Another contributor is Learie Constantine, the cricketer, who talks about industry.

South-east Asia in the Second World War

Extract 11 (10.46)

Sequence of shots showing Japanese troops fighting in South-east Asia. Britain was unable to defend this area successfully and this showed up one of the weaknesses of its Empire.

On 15 February 1942, a British garrison in Singapore surrendered to a small Japanese army. The British, dominion and Indian troops had been in retreat in this area since December 1941. This was a critical line of defence for the Australians and a British retreat undermined their confidence in Britain. They saw the retreat as a betrayal of them. It was clear from this episode that Britain could not defend all of her Empire.

Extract 12 (11.13)

The commentary in this extract shows Japanese joy and celebration at the British surrender of Singapore in their 'war of liberation'. The victory was highly symbolic for the Japanese, who called it a victory of Asia for the Asiatic (that is, Asia for Asian people and not for others). The commentary of the film underlines the large number of captured colonial and dominion troops.

It was the Americans who took over the task of protecting the Empire by reconquering Burma and defending India. A significant number of Indian troops (around 50,000) defected to the Japanese and formed the Indian national army whose main aim was to free India from the British Empire.

Anti-imperialist feeling was strong and increasing. In November 1941, President Roosevelt said, 'There must be no place after the world war for special privileges, either for individuals or for nations.' In August 1941, Churchill and Roosevelt came up with the Atlantic Charter which pledged to uphold 'the rights of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they live; and they wish to see sovereign rights and self government restored to those who have been forcibly deprived of them.' This charter clearly made the Empire an 'immoral' entity. The only way that it could continue to justify its existence was to stress that the British ruled in the best interests of the colonised. Public opinion was increasingly sceptical about this view.

Extract 14 (13.15)

March of Time (1944)

Anti-imperialism is evident in this extract, an American cinema newsreel of 1944.

Independence in India

There had been a sustained campaign for independence for India but Britain had refused it at a time when Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the white South Africans were given self-rule within the Commonwealth.

In 1919, following the Amritsar massacre, Gandhi became leader of the Indian nationalist movement. Gandhi's aim was to achieve justice and fairness for all Indians, including the very poor. His campaign of non-violence fundamentally challenged claims to superiority and 'civilisation' by the British ruling class. His campaign was very successful. In 1931, discussions began and in 1935, a new system of elected governments in India was introduced with the Government of India Act. After the war the question was 'when would the British give in?' The British Labour Party had promised independence to India and honoured this promise when it came into power after the war.

Extract 15 (14.08)

Sequence of shots of Lord Mountbatten and information about India's independence.

Extract 16 (14.31)

However the enthusiasm would soon turn to despair as thousands died in the massacres that followed. In 1946, fighting began between Muslims and Hindus who lived close to each other.

India had many religions, the majority – about two thirds – were Hindus. The Muslim minority, represented by the Muslim League, and led by Jinnah, was concerned that the Hindu-dominated Congress would not be fair to Muslims and in 1940, made public its desire to form Pakistan. The British tried to get the Congress and Muslim League to reach an agreement but without success. In 1947, the British announced that they would leave within a year. Within six months, the Congress and Muslim League had set up separate governments for two new countries – India and Pakistan.

Extract 17 (16.40)

Sequence of shots showing migration during partition of India and map showing partition and change of East Pakistan to Bangladesh.

The creation of India and Pakistan led to enormous movement as Muslims and Hindus tried to resettle in 'their' land – Pakistan for the Muslims and India for the Hindus. About a million died in the violence that took place during partition.

Extract 18 (17.10)

Curfews in Delhi 1948)

This British newsreel shows scenes from Delhi during the massacres. It is nostalgic and imperialist in tone, with phrases such as 'the novelty of independence has worn thin – as the massacre went on the East was wistfully saying goodbye to the reign of the British.

In 1971, East Pakistan broke away from West Pakistan to become Bangladesh.

Between 1957 and 1980, the whole of Africa became independent and, on the whole, this was a peaceful process. There were still attempts to keep the black people in some parts of Africa without civil rights. For example in South Africa, Kenya and Southern Rhodesia. In Kenya the white settlers, who made up 1% of the population, resisted black rule for 10 years. A 'black' organisation, called the Mau Mau, turned to violent methods and many black Africans and white settlers were killed. The British arrested the Kenyan leader, Jomo Kenyatta, and many of his followers, but independence was the only solution. In 1963, Kenyatta became the first Prime Minister of independent Kenya.