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In early 2006 an aerial photographic survey of Anglesey produced a remarkable image. On the slopes south of the town of Amlwch approximately four miles from the island's north coast – a large pentangular earthwork could be seen.
The earthwork, known as Y Werthyr, has long been known about – but until the photograph was taken nobody knew its full extent. It had never been excavated, nor properly identified.
If comparisons with other sites on the island are correct, however, Y Werthyr is one of a small group of pentangular or polygonal enclosures that date from the middle to late Iron Age. This was the time when, according to classical sources, the island of Anglesey was the centre of the ancient Britons' druidic priesthood.
Y Werthyr presented Time Team with a rare opportunity to excavate a large, previously uninvestigated, site. And perhaps, too, a chance to catch a glimpse of one of the bloodiest events in British history – the Roman suppression of druidic Anglesey.
The earthwork known as Y Werthyr, near Amlwch on Anglesey, lies in a dramatic landscape, rich in archaeology. To the immediate west, aerial photographs show at least one rectangular crop mark; there's a standing stone in the farm (also called Y Werthyr) to the north west of the site; and to the east is the intriguingly named field, Pen Y Fenwent – or Cemetery Hill – beneath what appears to be a tumulus.
Time Team was seeking to date and identify this strange earthwork. Could the Team find evidence of how people lived here? Their houses? Their occupations? Their deaths? And what was the strange rectangle in the midst of the earthwork? Could this represent multiple phases of occupation – perhaps straddling the dramatic period in the island's history between the Iron Age and the Roman era?
It proved to be a difficult site from which to draw definitive conclusions. Geophysics surveys and Stewart's wider landscape research both pointed to extensive – and, for the archaeologists – complex occupation phases. But there was a paucity of clear dating evidence, with much of the prehistoric landscape having been stripped bare of potential finds by later ploughing.
The team was able to establish that the site had been in use at least 2,000 years before the Roman attack on Anglesey when a Bronze-Age burial was found in the centre of the earthwork. The earthwork itself was probably home to an important Iron-Age chieftain, although postholes uncovered inside it didn't provide conclusive dating evidence and weren't sufficient to give a clear picture of the structures to which they belonged.
What was clear was that this had been a significant Iron-Age settlement, with a complex network of ditches, embankments, tracks and fields dating from before the Roman invasion. The site appears to have gone out of use after this time, although a couple of stray Roman coins were found among the covering layers of earth.
In 60 AD, Suetonius Paulinus led the Roman invasion of Wales and, in particular, the isle of Mona – modern day Ynys Mon or Anglesey. The island held large grain harvests, contained important copper mines and was the centre of druidism and resistance to Roman rule. Paulinus, who was to go on to defeat the Boudiccan revolt in England, was determined to take the island, defeat the druids and put an end to the resistance once and for all.
The Roman historian Tacitus described the defeat of the druids of Anglesey in Annals, book XIV, chapters 29-30:
Paulinus Suetonius succeeded to the command; an officer of distinguished merit. To be compared with Corbulo was his ambition. His military talents gave him pretensions, and the voice of the people, who never leave exalted merit without a rival, raised him to the highest eminence. By subduing the mutinous spirit of the Britons he hoped to equal the brilliant success of Corbulo in Armenia.
With this view, he resolved to subdue the isle of Mona, a place inhabited by a warlike people, and a common refuge for all the discontented Britons. In order to facilitate his approach to a difficult and deceitful shore, he ordered a number of flat-bottomed boats to be constructed. In these he wafted over the infantry, while the cavalry, partly by fording over the shallows, and partly by swimming their horses, advanced to gain a footing on the island. On the opposite shore stood the Britons, close embodied, and prepared for action. Women were seen running through the ranks in wild disorder, their apparel funereal, their hair loose to the wind, in their hands flaming torches, and their whole appearance resembling the frantic rage of the Furies. The druids were ranged in order, with hands uplifted, invoking the gods, and pouring forth horrible imprecations.
The novelty of the fight struck the Romans with awe and terror. They stood in stupid amazement, as if their limbs were benumbed, riveted to one spot, a mark for the enemy. The exhortations of the general diffused new vigour through the ranks, and the men, by mutual reproaches, inflamed each other to deeds of valour. They felt the disgrace of yielding to a troop of women, and a band of fanatic priests; they advanced their standards, and rushed on to the attack with impetuous fury. The Britons perished in the flames, which they themselves had kindled. The island fell, and a garrison was established to retain it in subjection. The religious groves, dedicated to superstition and barbarous rites, were levelled to the ground. In those recesses, the natives [stained] their altars with the blood of their prisoners, and in the entrails of men explored the will of the gods.
Channel 4 is not responsible for the content of third-party sites.
The experimental cameo in the Anglesey programme featured a dramatic reconstruction of a wicker man – the concept of creating a combustible structure in human form, thought to have been used in Iron-Age pagan ritual.
The 1973 film The Wicker Man, starring Edward Woodward and Christopher Lee, turned the ritual into a cinematic spectacular. But who could build a wicker man today? Time Team managed to find a modern day reconstruction specialist, David Freeman, who was able to construct a model of what an Iron-Age wicker man might actually have looked like.
David has years of experience in archaeological reconstruction work, from the fantastic buildings of Butser Ancient Farm to projects with textiles and pottery. He has also built the odd 40-feet wicker man in the past. He spoke to the Time Team website about this reconstruction.
What was the thinking behind the cameo?
The Romans attacked Anglesey because, they said, it was a stronghold of the druids. In other writings the Romans describe the druids practising human sacrifice, with Caesar saying: '…Others have effigies of great size interwoven with twigs, the limbs of which are filled up with living people, which are set on fire from below, and the people are deprived of life surrounded by flames…' So that's what it was all about.
What materials did you require?
There was an internal frame composed of two tree trunks, with the surrounding body woven out of willow rods. The materials had been sourced on Anglesey, from managed plantings. The timber was kindly donated by the Merick Estate.
What tools did you use and were they historically accurate?
We used hand tools to construct the wicker man. The main one was a billhook, very similar in shape and size to finds from the Iron Age.
What were the main steps in the process?
The main frame was erected by digging the butt-ends into the beach. The rest of the body was woven and tied around the frame. All lashings were done with strips of bark from the willow rods.
What was the hardest part of the reconstruction?
Because of the high winds, the most difficult part was getting the head up the ladder (yes, they had ladders in the Iron Age) and fastening it onto the frame. We ended up with help from the land owner using his tractor, which had a hydraulic bucket on the front.
Would you change anything if you did the reconstruction again?
The frame needed to be further into the sand. The rain, wind, and tide combined to make the whole thing a little unstable, but it was interesting. Thanks to the team for letting me join in with one of the Time Team episodes.
David Freeman's website is at www.gallica.co.uk
Barry Cunliffe writes about the druids and human sacrifice on pp191-193 of The Ancient Celts. He's writing about the Celtic peoples of Europe as a whole, rather than Britain specifically, as part of the chapter on Religious Systems. He says there is 'ample evidence' for human sacrifice by the druids, but then comes close to contradicting himself by saying, 'Convincing evidence of human sacrifice is surprisingly rare in the archaeological record.' His evidence is primarily from classical writers (Roman and Greek).
Classical references
There are three principal references to druidic human sacrifices in classical writings – by Strabo, in his Geography; Julius Caesar, in the Gallic Wars; and Tacitus, in Annals. This is what each of them wrote:
Strabo:
'The Romans put a stop both to these customs and to the ones connected with sacrifice and divination, as they were in conflict with our own ways: for example, they would strike a man who had been consecrated for sacrifice in the back with a sword, and make prophecies based on his death-spasms; and they would not sacrifice without the presence of the Druids. Other kinds of human sacrifices have been reported as well: some men they would shoot dead with arrows and impale in the temples; or they would construct a huge figure of straw and wood, and having thrown cattle and all manner of wild animals and humans into it, they would make a burnt offering of the whole thing.'Caesar:
'All the people of Gaul are completely devoted to religion, and for this reason those who are greatly affected by diseases and in the dangers of battle either sacrifice human victims or vow to do so using the Druids as administrators to these sacrifices, since it is judged that unless for a man's life a man's life is given back, the will of the immortal gods cannot be placated. In public affairs they have instituted the same kind of sacrifice. Others have effigies of great size interwoven with twigs, the limbs of which are filled up with living people which are set on fire from below, and the people are deprived of life surrounded by flames. It is judged that the punishment of those who participated in theft or brigandage or other crimes are more pleasing to the immortal gods; but when the supplies of this kind fail, they even go so low as to inflict punishment on the innocent.'Tacitus:
'On the shore stood the opposing army with its dense array of armed warriors, while between the ranks dashed women, in black attire like the Furies, with hair dishevelled, waving brands. All around, the Druids, lifting up their hands to heaven, and pouring forth dreadful imprecations, scared our soldiers by the unfamiliar sight, so that, as if their limbs were paralysed, they stood motionless, and exposed to wounds. Then urged by their general's appeals and mutual encouragements not to quail before a troop of frenzied women, they bore the standards onwards, smote down all resistance, and wrapped the foe in the flames of his own brands. A force was next set over the conquered, and their groves, devoted to inhuman superstitions, were destroyed. They deemed it indeed a duty to cover their altars with the blood of captives and to consult their deities through human entrails.'
Opinions vary on how reliable these sources are, and it is worth bearing in mind that none of them is a first-hand account; all of them have obvious propaganda purposes; some of the details are clearly copied from each other or drawn from the same source (eg the wicker man); and there are known inaccuracies (eg none of the Celtic peoples used bows and arrows at this time). As yet, the archaeological record provides little to support any of these accounts although as Mick Aston is fond of repeating, absence of evidence is not evidence of absence.
Watched the programme, browsed the web pages? Now try our quick quiz to see how much you know about druids and the ancient Britons.
What did Julius Caesar say was the 'principal point' of druidic beliefs?
That the sun is 'reborn' at the winter solstice
That all life is eternal
That the soul does not die but passes to another body at death
What did Caesar say that the druids were forbidden to do with their knowledge?
Use it for evil purposes
Write it down
Pass it on to non-druids
How much druidic literature has survived in either written or oral form?
None
One verse
One book
What did Pliny claim that druids cut with a golden knife?
The necks of their human sacrifices
Mistletoe
Oak branches
What nickname was given to the person whose body was found in a bog at Lindow, in Cheshire, and may have been a druidic sacrifice from around the time of the Roman attack on Anglesey?
Lyn Dow
Heather Bog
Pete Marsh
The modern Irish word, draíocht, derives from the Old Irish druídecht. What does draíocht mean?
Poetry
Magic
Mystery
Answers here.
Channel 4 is not responsible for the content of third-party sites.
Druids
Exploring the World of the Druids by Miranda J Green (Thames and Hudson, 2005) hardback £18.95
In this rich and fascinating account, lavishly supported by beautiful illustrations, Miranda Green unravels the truth about the druids. Examining the archaeological evidence, Classical commentaries and early Welsh and Irish myths, she shows that the druids were fully integrated into Celtic society as judges, teachers, healers, magicians, philosophers, religious leaders and fomenters of rebellion. Complete with timeline and a gazetteer, this meticulously researched book will appeal to scholars, New-Age enthusiasts and all those who are fascinated by the druids and their world.
Get this book
How the Celts Came to Britain: Druids, ancient skulls and the birth of archaeology by Michael A Morse (Tempus, 2004) £17.99
This book reveals how the Celts came to Britain in the sense of how the term 'Celtic' first became associated with the British Isles in the 18th century and then gradually took on its modern popular meaning towards the end of the 19th. The role of the druids and the importance of craniology in this process are emphasised.
Get this book
Iron Age
Britain BC: Life in Britain and Ireland before the Romans by Francis Pryor (Perennial, 2004) paperback £9.99
An authoritative and radical rethinking of the whole of British history before the coming of the Romans, based on remarkable new archaeological finds made over the past 30 years.
Get this book
Prehistoric Britain by Timothy Darvill (Routledge, 1987) paperback £22.99
Timothy Darvill examines the development of human societies in Britain from the earliest times down to the Roman Conquest, as revealed by available archaeological evidence. Special attention is given to six themes which are traced through all phases of prehistory: subsistence, technology, ritual, trade, society and population.
Get this book
Channel 4 is not responsible for the content of third-party sites.
Gallica World of the Ancient Britons
www.gallica.co.uk
Website run by David Freeman, who built the wicker man for the Anglesey programme.
The British Druid Order
www.druidorder.demon.co.uk
Website of the modern day British Druid Order, which says 'it teaches and practises druidry as the ancient native spirituality of Europe, re-kindling its sacred fire for the 21st century'.
The Roman Invasion of Anglesey
by John Griffiths
www.militaryhistoryonline.com/conquestbritain/
articles/anglesey.aspx
Online article about Suetonius Paulinus's attack on Anglesey in 60 AD.
Agricola and the Final Invasion of Anglesey
by John Griffiths
www.militaryhistoryonline.com/conquestbritain/
articles/agricola.aspx
Online article about Agricola's final subjection of Anglesey two decades after Paulinus's attack.
Other websites on the Iron Age
What did Julius Caesar say was the 'principal point' of druidic beliefs?
That the soul does not die but passes to another body at death
What did Caesar say that the druids were forbidden to do with their knowledge?
Write it down
How much druidic literature has survived in either written or oral form?
None
What did Pliny claim that druids cut with a golden knife?
Mistletoe
What nickname was given to the person whose body was found in a bog at Lindow, in Cheshire, and may have been a druidic sacrifice from around the time of the Roman attack on Anglesey?
Pete Marsh
The modern Irish word, draíocht, derives from the Old Irish druídecht. What does draíocht mean?
Magic