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South Shields is well known for the Roman fort of Arbeia at the end of Hadrian's Wall. A few tombstones and burials have been found here in the past hundred years, but these account for only a small fraction of the legionaries and others who must have been buried on this site. Somewhere there must be a large Roman military cemetery – or cemeteries.
Unfortunately, the most likely location for any burial ground is under a large 1960s housing estate. So, for this programme Time Team had to investigate every spare piece of open space; seek out the scraps of undisturbed stratigraphy among developments both Victorian and modern; dig in the gaps between services; take a look under the occasional pavement; and enlist as much local help as possible, young and old, in the hunt for the site.
It was three days of head-scratching mayhem before the answer emerged.
Time Trail
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This was Time Team's second excavation in the current series on the site of a Roman fort. The first was the site at Drumlanrig, Dumfries. Previously unexcavated, little is known about this isolated – and relatively short-lived – outpost located at the northernmost limits of Roman control in Britain. In contrast, we know quite a lot about the role played in Roman military defences by the fort of Arbeia, in what is now South Shields. Visitors to the site are able to see dramatic reconstructions of the fort's gatehouse and other buildings, as well as the excavated remains and finds in the onsite museum.
Situated four miles from the eastern end of Hadrian's Wall, the mighty stone fort guarded the entrance to the river Tyne. Originally built around 160 AD to house a garrison, it subsequently became the main military supply base for the 17 forts along the wall. These included the fort at Birdoswald, the eleventh fort from the east end of Hadrian's Wall, where Time Team also investigated the Roman cemetery, as well as the fort's vicus, or associated civilian settlement, as part of the 2000 series.
The military played a huge part in Roman Britain, with up to one tenth of the entire Roman army stationed here. So it is not surprising that they figure so highly in the many Time Team digs dating from the Roman occupation. Another Roman military stronghold investigated by the Team was at Castleford, during the 2002 series, while the dig at Sedgefield, during the 2003 series, uncovered Roman pottery and metal industry that probably served the supply base at Arbeia.
The reconstruction cameo for this programme saw Time Team Digger Matt Williams train as a raw recruit to the Roman legions. The legionaries' lot in the Roman army was a tough one, as Matt discovered.
Watched the programme, exhausted the web pages? Now try our quick Time Trial quiz to see how much you know.
Watched the programme, browsed the web pages? Now try our quick quiz to see how you get on.
Time Team digger Matt Williams was given a hard time by his commander during his 'training' as a Roman legionary at South Shields. What was a Roman legionary commander called?
Centurion
Legate
Primus pilus
How many cohorts made up a standard Roman legion?
One
Ten
Twenty
What was the officer in charge of a cohort called?
Centurion
Legate
Primus pilus
How many legionaries made up a standard Roman legion?
Up to 1,000
Up to 6,000
Up to 10,000
What was the senior centurion called in a Roman legion?
Centurion
Legate
Primus pilus
At Birdoswald, another Roman fort where Time Team excavated a cemetery during the 2000 series, Phil Harding confidently identified one find as part of a Roman roof tile. What did it turn out to be?
Part of a modern field drain
A lump of natural clay
Part of a film container
Answers here.
Skeletons and tombstones were discovered during the 19th-century development of the site of the Arbeia Roman fort in South Shields, on Tyneside. Further burials were excavated during more recent housing development. Time Team joined forces with Arbeia Fort Museum, county archaeologist David Heslop and local residents to investigate the surrounding housing estate for further evidence of a military cemetery.
Trenches were located within the open areas of the 1960s housing estate to determine the extent of the cemetery. The initial discoveries had suggested that the cemetery would be large. However, trenches placed beyond the recorded discoveries, both to the west and the north, revealed no Roman evidence and geophysics had a hard time even with the use of ground-penetrating radar.
Test pits excavated by residents in the estate gardens uncovered a few Roman sherds but no features. Test pits excavated by school children in the school grounds, to the west of the main fort gate, produced second- to fourth-century AD domestic wares.
Trenches placed immediately north of the known burials revealed a midden containing second- to fourth-century AD domestic wares, a cobbled path and a ditch. This indicated both that the vicus, the settlement associated with the fort, extended further south than previously thought, and that a path led from the main north-south road to the area of the known burials.
Trenches placed immediately south of the burial site were complicated by the existence of extensive services. It was suggested that a beam slot, in Roman levels, could be related to a similar feature discovered nearby to form a ritual enclosure beside the cemetery.
While the geology was not conducive to bone preservation, it was concluded that the known area of burials did not extend far beyond what had been previously excavated. The rest of Arbeia's dead were buried elsewhere.
Channel 4 is not responsible for the content of third-party sites.
The Time Team captains of geophysics, GSB Prospection, have had a good year. The results at the South Shields dig were too confused by 19th- and 20th-century development of the site to be of much help, even with the use of ground-penetrating radar. But the surveys carried out elsewhere for this series of Time Team have been impressive and some astoundingly clear plots have been recorded – especially during the excavations at Skipsea, on Humberside, for example, where a complicated succession of enclosures and boundaries, invisible at ground level, were clearly mapped.
The backbones of the geophysical surveys have once again been the magnetometry and resistivity methods, the dependable mainstays of field archaeology. GSB stalwarts Jimmy Adcock and Ben Urmston can often be seen striding across the landscape in the background of the filming, concentrating deeply and wielding unusual-looking pieces of equipment.
'We've got a flux gate gradiometer, which measures the magnetism in the soil,' says Jimmy. 'We use a double gradiometer set-up, which is essentially two machines calibrated together, so that we can survey twice as much area. What we are looking for is enhancements in the soil's magnetism, which can indicate if there is archaeology below the surface.'
Working from dawn till dusk the geophysics team gets plenty of exercise. 'We can walk loads of miles in a day,' continues Jimmy, 'and when it's raining and windy using the big flux gate can be like pushing a rugby post through treacle. I love my job.'
Ben Urmston also likes his country walks: 'By walking miles you get to think about stuff. Very deep thoughts in our own little world, like what would be really nice for dinner and things like that. We also end up with big legs.'
Channel 4 is not responsible for the content of third-party sites.
For this programme, the reconstruction cameo saw Time Team digger Matt Williams signing up as a Roman legionary with the Comitatus re-enactment group.
Ros Ereira, cameo producer
Matt Williams, Time Team digger and Roman legionary
Comitatus, experimental archaeology group
Ros Ereira, cameo producer
When I saw that the reconstructed Roman fort at Arbeia had a barrack block, complete with beds, it became inevitable that someone would have to spend the night in them – and Matt was surprisingly pleased when I told him he had been volunteered for the task!
Matt's new comrades-in-arms were supplied by the late-Roman re-enactment group, Comitatus, who provided us with a commander and a group of fellow soldiers for Matt to join. Matt had to learn to handle the weapons used by the soldiers of the time, as well as living the life of a Roman legionary for 24 hours. He was allowed only to wear Roman clothes, eat Roman food, sleep in a Roman bed – and drink Roman alcohol. In the evening, he had a Roman massage and then drank seaweed ale, mead and thick red wine with his new friends in their Roman 'tavern', before being put on guard-duty at 2am. His packet of cigarettes, which he'd intended to help see him through the long night, was unceremoniously crushed underfoot by the commander as 'non-Roman'.
As the film crew retired to their beds long beforehand, it was left to me to endure the long hours alongside Matt in order to film his ordeal. This meant that the two of us were huddled together in the cold and dark at 2am trying to find a way of getting enough light on his face for the camera to see him. Judging from the state that poor Matt was in the next morning, I think he's rather pleased that he's an archaeologist, and not a Roman soldier!
Matt Williams, Time Team digger and Roman legionary
Back in the good old days things were so much simpler. No disturbing mobile phones, no noisy traffic, no central heating, no electric lights, no gas stoves and certainly no decent weatherproof clothing. Men were tough and the weather was cruel, combat was face to face and bloody and no-one cried if they got hurt. And this is (sort of) where I ended up – as a Roman soldier from Germany in third-century Britain.
My name was Germanicus and I was stationed in Arbeia, on Hadrian's Wall. After signing my freedom away with a cross, I was dressed for the part. An ill-fitting helmet (mass produced for the army – one size fits none); some strappy sandals (just right for the bracing Newcastle weather); a shield I could hardly lift; a vicious-looking spear; some rather fetching woollen trousers; and finally an enormous chain-mail vest. I buckled over just trying to stand up. How was I supposed to train in all this?
Nonetheless, it was outside for the initiation and my first mistake – looking my centurion in the eye. As a sign of respect I was supposed always to look above his head when speaking to him. I then pledged my allegiance to God and the Emperor (pretty much the same person as far as I could work out) and the training could begin.
Despite the lack of technology, there were plenty of different things to do. I marched up and down, in a circle, backwards, forwards and sideways. And then did it all again. And again. And again.
Then there was the weapons training, which is far more exciting, involving real weapons. First I tried the plumbata, which were heavy lead balls with an arrowhead attached, which were thrown underarm to rain down on your foe. Then there was sword fighting, spear throwing and – my favourite, which I think I had quite a flair for – the javelin, which was hurled out with a kind of sling. You could reach quite a distance and do someone a nasty injury throwing that thing around, which I suppose was the point of it.
Finally, we tried a charge. As we thundered forward my helmet slowly slipped over my eyes, and when we ran down the eight-foot deep ditch and up the other side I was pretty much sightless, and we all collapsed in a pile of mud, sweat and spiky weapons at the other side. (I would like to point out that for 'television reasons' the director made us do this six times in quick succession. Lawrence, if you are reading this, I am still plotting my revenge.)
After a hearty meal of barley porridge and cheese, we settled down to entertain ourselves Roman style. Out came the lavender beer and various other pungent drinks and soon the ludo gave way to thumb wrestling, then arm wrestling and finally leg wrestling. 'All back to mine!' shouted Gaius, which wasn't really necessary as we were all sleeping in the same bed.
A soldier's work is never done, however, and after a couple of hours' sleep I was awoken to go on guard duty. From two until four in the morning, I stood in the freezing night with Paulus. We took it in turns to patrol the fort perimeter and swap tales of the old days, when the nights weren't so cold and the hangovers, which were gently creeping up on us, weren't so bad.
Finally, my training was over and I was ceremonially accepted into the Roman army and given an identity bracelet. My legs were blue from the cold and I could hardly lift my arms, but it had been one of the most exhilarating experiences I have known. How on earth those soldiers could have lived like that and still defeated the armies of the known world was incredible; everything they did was painful, tiring and dangerous (including the drinking). The next time I stare into the sunset and yearn for a simple life – just like in the old days – I'll definitely think again.
Comitatus, experimental archaeology group
The Comitatus re-enactment group is a collection of friends who primarily re-create the skills of the late Roman imperial army of around 400 AD. We were approached by Time Team to give Matt the digger an experience of 24 hours in the life of a Roman soldier. We spent some time preparing rooms in the barracks and courtyard at Arbeia. On Matt's arrival we were able to literally strip him of the 21st century and equip him as a pede of the Praesidiensis.
The cameras meant it was impossible to give Matt a true period experience. Despite our best intentions the modern world was just too intrusive. But we were able to work him pretty hard in the time we had. And we were able to intercept most of the cigarettes the production team kept slipping him. Matt certainly enjoyed the period alcohol on offer. He was swaying on his feet by the end of the experience. But he tried everything with good grace and never gave up.
A very special 24 hours for Matt was a standard weekend for us. You can see more of our activities at www.comitatus.net.
Hadrian's Wall in the Days of the Romans by Ronald Embleton and Frank Graham (Frank Graham, 1984) hardback £10.95
This book receives full marks for its vivid evocation of military and civilian life on a Roman frontier. Crammed full of inspired colour and black-and-white reconstructions, it proceeds along the wall from South Shields to Carlisle.
Hadrian's Wall: History and guide by Guy de la Bédoyère (Tempus, 1998) paperback £9.99
This guidebook is the perfect companion to an exploration of the wall. As well as providing details of each site and an overview of its social and military history, the author gives practical details of visible remains, their opening times and accessibility.
Life and Letters on the Roman Frontier by Alan K Bowman (British Museum Press, 1994) paperback £9.99
Many aspects of daily life on Hadrian's Wall have been revealed by the incredible stock of writing tablets found at Vindolanda. This compelling book discusses the context of the letters and reproduces 38 of them with translations, allowing us a glimpse of life on a frontier post in the 1st century AD.
Roman Forts in Britain by Paul Bidwell (English Heritage, 1997) paperback £15.99
A readable but detailed study of the legionary fortresses from the 2nd century AD onwards. The author, who has excavated all along Hadrian's Wall, discusses the function of forts, military buildings, supply systems, trade and everyday life.
Roman Forts in Britain by David Breeze (Shire, 1994) paperback £4.99
A concise introduction to the Roman legionary fortress, with a select gazetteer of sites to visit.
An Atlas of Roman Britain by Barri Jones and David Mattingly (Blackwell, 1993) paperback £15.99
An amazing accumulation of archaeological evidence has been used to map every aspect of Roman life on a countrywide scale, including the distribution of Roman forts, towns, villas, potteries and quarries. Lots of additional plans and useful descriptions on each topic.
The Finds of Roman Britain by Guy de la Bédoyère (Batsford, 1989) paperback £14.99
Written in non-specialist English, this is a well-illustrated guide to the various Roman finds from sites across the country, placing them within their social context.
Roman Britain by T W Potter (British Museum Press, 1983) paperback £6.95
The four centuries during which the Roman presence in Britain rose, flourished and declined changed every aspect of life: industry, trade, government, the arts and learning. This book gives an illustrated outline of the period.
Roman Britain by Tim Potter and Catherine Johns ('Exploring the Roman World' series, British Museum Publications, 1992) hardback £19.95
A survey of the effects of Roman culture on Britain and its people, by two British Museum curators. Includes evidence from the latest archaeological discoveries, including the Vindolanda writing tablets and the Thetford and Snettisham treasures, as well as a gazetteer of noteworthy sites to visit.
The Landscape of Roman Britain by Ken and Petra Dark (Sutton Publishing, 1997) paperback £10.99
A history of Roman Britain, considering the effects of human activity on the landscape, with particular attention paid to the Iron-Age background.
Roman Britain by Martin Millett (English Heritage, 1995) paperback £15.99
Making full use of the archaeological material available, this introductory study of four centuries of Roman presence in Britain explores the central themes of daily life, laying particular emphasis on the social, economic and cultural history.
Time Team digger Matt Williams was given a hard time by his commander during his 'training' as a Roman legionary at South Shields. What was a Roman legionary commander called?
Legate
How many cohorts made up a standard Roman legion?
Ten
What was the officer in charge of a cohort called?
Centurion
How many legionaries made up a standard Roman legion?
Up to 6,000
What was the senior centurion called in a Roman legion?
Primus pilus
At Birdoswald, another Roman fort where Time Team excavated a cemetery during the 2000 series, Phil Harding confidently identified one find as part of a Roman roof tile. What did it turn out to be?
Part of a modern field drain