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Unravelling the mystery (1503 - 1835)
In
the centuries that passed following the disaster of AD 79, life
returned to the region, despite the frequency of further eruptions
- see Vesuvius.
The mineral-rich volcanic soil attracted farmers, and during
the Middle Ages, the town of Resina-Ercolano was built over
Herculaneum, which had been inundated again by the 1631 eruption
and now lay beneath metres of hard solidified mud. Nothing was
erected over Pompeii, slumbering beneath its thick coat of light
pumice and ash. However, a clue to its existence could be seen
in the name given to this area: Civitas or, in Italian, La Citté
- 'the city'. But nobody realised its significance for a very
long time.
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1503
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Topographer Ambrogio Leone, making a map of Campania, marks Herculaneum
not far from its actual site.
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1592
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Roman architect Domenico Fontana, while cutting a water conduit across Civitas, finds ancient stones and almost comes across the amphitheatre.
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1689
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More excavations for water in Civitas produce a stone inscribed 'Decurio Pompeiis'. This is thought to refer to the Roman statesman Pompey the Great and so is ignored.
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1699
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Giuseppe Macrini publishes De Vesuvio in which he writes that Pompeii lies beneath Civitas. His statement is treated with scepticism.
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A workman sinking a well in a monastery in
Resina strikes seats in Herculaneum's theatre and brings up samples
of rare marble. One of the Austrian occupiers of Italy, Maurice
de Lorraine, Prince d'Elbeuf, builds a villa nearby. Told of the
marble, he orders the well to be deepened and exploratory tunnels
to be dug. Part of a statue of Hercules and three female statues
are found, as well as the inscription 'Appius Pulcher' - a governor
of Sicily and friend of the Roman statesman Cicero. The prince
plunders most of what he finds to decorate his house, but sends
the group of female statues to Prince Eugene of Savoy in Vienna.
Thus is one of the few intact ancient theatres vandalised.
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1738-45
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Charles, 18-year-old king of Naples and Sicily, orders that excavations
be resumed. He employs a Spanish colonel of engineers, Joaquín
de Alcubierre, who proceeds to dig shafts and tunnels blindly
into the city, filling them with rubble as soon as anything of
interest has been removed so that the foundations of Resina's
houses above are not endangered. Gunpowder is used to speed the
work. Hardly any records are kept; bronze letters are removed
without transcribing the inscriptions. Among the artefacts found
are parts of two bronze horses, jewellery, statues (including
one of the emperor Augustus). The Theatre of Hercules is identified
and, shortly after, the name of the town itself. Many finds are
removed to the palace in Naples; the king decides that these treasures
must remain secret and forbids anyone to sketch or write about
them. However, in 1739, an account of the excavations, written
by Charles De Brosses, is sent to the French Academy and news
of the finds begins to percolate through Europe. By 1745, it appears
that the treasures have all been found.
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1748-9
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Royal permission is granted to excavate at Civitas (thought to be the ancient Roman town of Stabiae). Muslim slaves, chained in pairs, are used to do the work. They find the temple of Fortuna Augusta, but little else. By now, Alcubierre has been joined by Swiss architect Karl Weber, who is much more methodical and is today credited as one of the fathers of modern archaeology. Alcubierre is jealous of him and sabotages his work.
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1750-65
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The Villa dei Papiri (Villa of the Papyri) is discovered at Herculaneum.
Its frontage of 250 metres (820 feet) is lined with 64 columns
and 90 statues, all virtually undamaged and of supreme artistic
importance. (During World War II, Hermann Goering removes them
from Naples museum; they are retrieved from a salt mine in 1945.)
About 1,787 papyrus scrolls
are found, all badly burned. When some are unwound, they are seen
to be written in Greek, mainly philosophical works, with many
by the Roman philosopher/poet Philodemus. The villa is thought
to have belonged to Lucius Calpurnius Piso, father of Julius Caesar's
wife Calpurnia. After Karl Weber draws up a detailed plan of the
villa, it is covered over again. (See 1974.)
In 1757, Francesco Valletta publishes the first of eight volumes
of Le Antichité di Erocolano esposte ('An Account
of the Antiquities of Herculaneum') - a major influence on the
development of the Neo-classical movement in Europe.
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1762
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German art historian Johann Joachim Winkelmann writes an open letter to scholars all over Europe attacking the mismanaged excavation and disgraceful cataloguing and preservation that holds sway at Herculaneum and Civitas, despite Weber's efforts.
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1763
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An inscription is found that finally proves that Civitas is Pompeii.
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1765
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On Weber's death, the architect Francisco La Vega is put in charge of excavations. He makes plans of sites as they are uncovered, and ends the use of slaves. The Temple of Isis is discovered: its decorations and furniture will prove an important influence on later Empire style.
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1770
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Sir William Hamilton, British envoy to Naples 1764-1800 (and, later, husband to Emma), publishes four volumes illustrating his collection of vases and other antiquities, some of which come from Pompeii and Herculaneum. Two years later, the whole collection is bought by the British Museum for £8,400.
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1777
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La Vega is directed by regent Bernardo Tannucci to stop digging haphazardly and to remove debris out of town rather than keeping it on site. The two men begin to feud. La Vega, supported by the queen, wins and Tannucci is sacked. The work at Pompeii virtually grinds to a halt.
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1798-1814
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The French under Napoleon overrun the kingdom of Naples, including Pompeii and Herculaneum, ousting King Ferdinand II (and La Vega). During this time (with a gap from 1801 to 1806, when the French complied with treaty provisions and left), more advances are made at Pompeii than in the previous 50 years. The most important discovery is the full extent of the city walls; all the land within them is then purchased for future excavation.
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1806
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Some 96 of the Villa dei Papiri scrolls have been deciphered. They have been unrolled using a machine adapted from one used in wigmaking. Unfortunately many scrolls have been destroyed in the process.
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1828-35
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Francis I of Naples - who loved to take moonlight strolls among the ruins of Pompeii - orders that the excavation of Herculaneum be resumed. This time the underground tunnels are ignored and all the digging takes place in the open, leaving the buildings exposed to the sky. One is the House of the Faun, containing the Alexander mosaic, one of the most outstanding of the ancient world. However, to those involved, the results prove disappointing, the king loses interest and the site is once again abandoned.
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