The origins of the conflict

The English Civil Wars had their roots in several kinds of conflict – religious, financial and political. There was a history of mistrust between the king, Charles I, who was a Catholic sympathiser, and Parliament, which had become increasingly Puritan. As head of the established Church (which was Anglican Protestant), Charles saw Puritanism as an attack on his authority, while Parliament suspected Charles of being involved in Catholic plots. A dispute over the king's tax-raising powers led Charles to dissolve Parliament in 1629.

For 11 years, the king ruled alone and raised money by reviving old taxes. However, in 1640 many people refused to pay and he was forced to recall Parliament. Prominent in the Long Parliament, as it became known, was a group of radical Puritan MPs who were determined to limit the king's power. Among them was the fervently religious Oliver Cromwell.

At the time, the country had no standing army. Military forces were created for specific campaigns and traditionally only the king had the right to raise them. In 1642, when a Catholic rebellion erupted in Ireland, Parliament refused to entrust Charles with an army. To the king, this was treason. He set about raising an army from nobles and landowners willing to take arms against Parliament. Equally hastily, Parliament claimed the loyalties of most of the country's 'trained bands' and much of the navy. The First Civil War had begun.

The First Civil War

It was a patchy affair as both sides were ill prepared and had to recruit soldiers as they went along. Broadly speaking, Parliamentary ('Roundhead') forces were strongest in the south-east and east, while the Royalists ('Cavaliers') dominated the north, the Midlands, Wales and the West Country. In fact, most regions were divided, with villages and even families split in their loyalties.

Money was a problem throughout the war: troops often went unpaid and had to take 'free quarter' in villages, paying for shelter and food with certificates that often turned out to be worthless. Travel was difficult as the armies were laden with unwieldy equipment that frequently got stuck in lanes. As a result, areas such as Oxfordshire, Berkshire and West Yorkshire suffered almost continual fighting, while large parts of Wales, East Anglia and Kent barely saw soldiers.

Oliver Cromwell, a gifted cavalry leader, rose quickly through the ranks during the First Civil War. Having proved his brilliance at the battle of Marston Moor, he reorganised Parliament's troops into the New Model Army, recruiting 'Godly men' rather than gentlemen and imposing strict discipline.

His forces destroyed the king's main army at Naseby in June 1645. In May 1646, two months after the last Royalist army in the field had surrendered, Charles placed himself in the hands of the Scottish army. In January 1647, for the price of £400,000, the Scots handed Charles over to Parliament, who imprisoned him at Hampton Court. While a nervous and divided Parliament negotiated with the king, New Model Army radicals joined with the Levellers, a group of London intellectuals, and – in the Putney Debates – demanded back-pay, freedom of worship and the vote for all men. The movement culminated in part of the army staging a mutiny, which Cromwell put down in person.

The Second Civil War

Encouraged by this disarray among his enemies, Charles, ever the intriguer, formed a secret alliance – the Treaty of Engagement – with the Scots. In April 1648, combined Royalist and Scots forces invaded the north of England and so opened the Second Civil War. It lasted less then four months: in August, with discipline restored among his 'Ironsides', Cromwell once again routed the Royalists, at the battle of Preston.

Charles's alliance with Scotland was widely seen as treachery. The army now demanded that the king be put on trial, and on 6 December, a troop of soldiers barred the way to Parliament, turning away MPs who would not support them. The whittled-down 'Rump Parliament' duly voted for a trial and Charles I was convicted of treason and beheaded in January 1649.

Parliament ruled, but it was not popular with its own people. The wars and inflation had ravaged the country; life was hard. In some districts, Puritan zealots banned dancing and the theatre, which was bitterly resented. And while Charles I might be dead, he had a living son with a claim to rule. In August 1649, Royalists in Ireland declared for Charles II and the Third Civil War began.

The Third Civil War

Cromwell suppressed the Irish uprising in just nine months and returned in triumph, leaving tales of atrocities behind him. The action then moved to Scotland, where, in the latter part of 1650, Cromwell defeated a Scottish Royalist army and occupied the Lowlands. On 1 January 1651, Charles II was crowned king at Scone. His final throw of the dice was to invade England with Scottish troops and raise a new Royalist army. However, in September, his forces were decisively beaten at Worcester by Cromwell, and Charles II fled to France.

His hurried departure brought the English Civil Wars to an end. Scotland was forcibly united with England, and for the next ten years, England would remain a republic. Oliver Cromwell became Lord Protector in 1653 and held the title until his death in 1658. A mere two years later, Charles II was invited to return as king.

Top

Catholic satire on Anglican bishops
(Mary Evans Picture Library)

Cromwell leads his troops at the battle of Naseby
(AKG Photos)