Introduction | Cleopatra and Caesar | Antony and Octavian
War of words and spectacle | The end of the affair
The consequences | Find out more

A war of words and spectacle

In 36 BC, with Cleopatra's money and grain behind him, Antony finally embarked on the Parthian campaign. It was a disaster: Antony lost 60,000 troops and was forced to retreat. Cleopatra, arriving with fresh supplies, took him home with her to Egypt.

After his defeat, Antony seemed keen to recuperate with Cleopatra and then return to Octavia, who, on Octavian's orders, had set sail for Alexandria. But Cleopatra forced him to stay – weeping, fasting and swooning (says Plutarch) until he was forced to choose between them.

Decisions and choices
More than jealousy prompted her actions. She could not allow him to go home and make peace with Octavian, because it was a peace that would exclude her. Octavian's ambitions were limitless. He wanted to found a ruling dynasty, descended from his great-uncle, the now-divine Julius Caesar. But Cleopatra presented a direct challenge to this because her son Caesarion was Caesar's son – though Octavian always questioned this. Even if the brothers-in-law were reconciled, Cleopatra would still be Octavian's enemy.

According to the myth, Antony chose Cleopatra over his home and his Roman wife because he loved the Egyptian queen so much, even though it meant war. But if Antony wanted the empire, then war with Octavian was inevitable. He would need money and allies for the fight to come. And if he wanted to found a dynasty, he needed sons. Cleopatra had money and two sons by him. Octavia had divided loyalties and two daughters. In one sense, he chose Cleopatra and this forced him to fight; in another, he chose to fight, and this forced him to choose Cleopatra. It wasn't a break with Rome, but a decision to fight for Rome.

Once this decision had been made, and Octavia had been sent back to her brother, Antony and Cleopatra were irrevocably bound to one another – he needed her as much as she needed him.

Propaganda campaigns
Propaganda played a crucial role in determining the outcome of this dynastic struggle. Antony understood something about image manipulation, but he was no match for the genius of Octavian. While Cleopatra was the most popular Ptolemaic ruler at home, Octavian misrepresented her actions to exaggerate the threat she posed to the Roman way of life.

Octavian made Antony seem 'un-Roman'. At best, he was slow and naïve. At worst, he had abandoned the steady, masculine, honourable practices of the Roman people. The incestuous, animal-worshipping, lascivious queen had enthralled him.

Octavian's propaganda made Antony disappear behind the looming image of Cleopatra, and changed the focus of what was essentially a civil war. It was no longer two compatriots fighting; it was Octavian defending Rome against the depraved oriental horde. And as Antony began to seem 'un-Roman', Octavian showed himself to embody everything Roman – dutiful, patriotic, steady, even cold if his country demanded it.

Cleopatra was just as adept at communicating with her people. But where Octavian used words, she used spectacles. She laid on lavish ceremonies and displays that showed the strength and wealth of Egypt. For example, her arrival in Turkey – dressed as Isis, in the golden barge – was pure theatre. It stole the show from Antony, whose courtiers abandoned him to watch her arrival. It made her at least his equal. It showed her divinity as a pharaoh and her wealth as a Ptolemy. It even hinted at a joint future: Isis was the lover of Dionysus, Antony's patron god.

Octavian's portrayal of Cleopatra won Rome over to his side. His expertise in propaganda is even more remarkable when it is remembered that the cult of Isis had become extremely popular throughout the empire, not least in Rome and Pompeii.

A direct challenge
In 34 BC, Antony embarked on a swift campaign in Armenia. He brought the captive king Artavasdes back to Alexandria, where Cleopatra's coffers were replenished with booty. The couple chose to celebrate this victory with an extraordinary spectacle – the 'Donations of Alexandria':

He had two golden thrones placed on a silver stage, one for himself, one for Cleopatra, with further thrones, of a more humble design, arranged there for his sons. Then he proclaimed Cleopatra queen of Egypt, Cyprus, Africa and Syria, with Caesarion as her joint ruler.
Plutarch

Antony – dressed as Dionysus to Cleopatra's Isis – went on to hand out more Eastern territories to their twin sons. The catch was that several were not yet conquered and, worse, some were Roman.

To the Romans, the Alexandrian Donations were a direct challenge. It was stupid of Antony – and ultimately fatal to him – not to understand how Rome would view this piece of theatre, and how Octavian would use it against him to show that he had turned away from Rome.

Octavian built on the discord this created in Rome. He then added to it by stealing Antony's will from the Vestal Virgins. The fact that this was a sacrilegious act was overlooked when Octavian made its shocking contents public. The will – if it really was Antony's – was written by someone who was now deeply in love with Cleopatra. He requested that he be buried in Egypt next to her, and he formally recognised Caesarion as Caesar's son, strengthening the claim of a Ptolemaic ruler to the Roman empire. To the Romans, it was a complete betrayal.

Top