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Why did Britain and France go to war?
Although news of the fall of the Bastille – and, with it, the start of the French Revolution (see Travel guide) – in 1789 was initially greeted with enthusiasm in Britain, the execution of Louis XVI in January 1793 sparked an enormous sense of outrage. France – initially protecting its new-found freedom from a European coalition determined to return the ancien régime to power – was already conquering mainland Europe to create buffer states between it and its enemies. British fears of violent revolution were mixed with a wish to preserve the balance of power.

So what tipped the balance?
This policy was threatened when the French started using the Scheldt River, which ran through what is now modern Belgium (then occupied by France) and reached the sea on Dutch territory. Britain was sensitive about Dutch independence because it safeguarded British trade routes, and had signed a treaty protecting Holland in 1788. On a more greedy note, some British politicians saw war with France as a chance to get their hands on French colonies.

So Britain declared war to protect Holland?
Not exactly. While the British were wondering what to do, the French beat them to it. Convinced by reports of radical societies that the country was on the brink of revolution, France declared war on Britain on 1 February 1793.

Weren't the two countries traditional enemies?
Yes, Britain and France had been rivals since the Middle Ages, when English kings (who had been related by blood to the French since William the Conqueror invaded England in 1066) fought for land in France. The Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) left a legacy of British military glory, symbolised by the battle of Agincourt in 1415. English monarchs had claimed French soil for centuries, finally losing their last foothold, Calais, in 1558. They discontinued calling themselves kings of France only in 1802.

What about ideas?
To add to disputes over lands, France was Catholic and had an absolute monarchy in the 18th century, while Britain was Protestant and had a constitutional monarchy. After 1793, when France executed its king and became a republic, both countries believed they were fighting for an ideal system that guaranteed liberty of the subject and fair play in politics.

Why did the 1793-1815 wars last so long?
One reason was that the British and French had different military strengths that cancelled each other out. France was more or less invincible on land and Britain was supreme at sea. The stalemate in the war arose because Britain found it hard to beat France on mainland Europe and France was unable to defeat Britain at sea even for the short time needed to invade Britain.

Is that all?
No. Another reason the wars lasted so long was that Britain and France had different objectives. Britain fought more for worldwide trade and commercial domination, while France fought, first, for revolutionary ideals and, later, for a French empire in Europe.

So the war started in 1793?
Well, for the French it started in April 1792. The European monarchies became alarmed by French ideas of revolution, and Austria and Prussia declared that the French were rabid dogs and should be shot.

What did the French do?
Under the cry of 'La patrie en danger!' ('The homeland in danger!'), the French turned war into a popular crusade. Their idea of a 'nation in arms' stressed enthusiasm over professionalism, and their 'levée en masse' (mass call-up) turned thousands of citizens into soldiers. By 1794, France had a million men under arms and was producing 7,000 cannon a year. Between 1804 and 1815, two million Frenchmen served in Napoleon's armies. As the Prussian soldier Karl von Clausewitz pointed out in his On War (1832), the traditional dynastic wars of monarchs had been replaced by wars of peoples.

The French army was reorganised by ...
• stressing morale – using volunteers who wanted to fight instead of unwilling conscripts
• reorganising the army on a modern pattern – with permanent divisions organised into corps, which were like miniature armies in which the divisions could practise manoeuvring with each other
• creating new tactics.

What new tactics?
Well, until then, most professional armies advanced in long lines of infantrymen two deep. To do this successfully over fields and hills needed a lot of drilling and high levels of discipline. But when the French recruited masses of raw conscripts, they couldn't do this, so they created the column, which was formed like a pack and could thus stay together easily. Instead of advancing slowly and firing volleys, these massed columns charged the enemy using their bayonets. The column emphasised offensive shock over defensive fire.

What about Napoleon?
Napoleon was a military genius. As a strategist, he had a phenomenal memory and the ability to concentrate and work really hard. He became expert in manoeuvring large armies of about 200,000 men across Europe, calculating which roads and what speeds the different detachments needed to take. This enabled him to outwit his slower opponents by arriving on a battlefield of his choice with more military units than them. The trick was to disperse forces so that the enemy wouldn't know where his army was going. In 1805, for example, he quartered his various army corps of 20,000 men each all over western Europe and brought them together with meticulous timing to encircle the Austrians at Ulm. Then he dispersed his men before converging rapidly on the Austrians and Russians at Austerlitz.

What were Napoleon's tactics?
In terms of battlefield tactics, Napoleon was an expert in concentrating his forces. For example, he was trained as an artillery man and developed the use of light, mobile field guns that could dash from one part of a battlefield to another and focus maximum fire power. He also used heavy cavalry to break through enemy lines. Such shock tactics won him his early victories.

Didn't Napoleon say that 'An army marches on its stomach'?
The French travelled light, marching 20 miles a day without any cumbersome baggage trains. They lived off the land, both buying food from local people and stealing it. Each soldier could expect 24 ounces (680 grams) of bread, 8oz (227g) of meat and some vegetables every day. Most soldiers slept in their bedrolls in the open, since tents were too heavy to carry. But the rich farmlands of western Europe were easy to plunder – the Grande Armée found it very difficult to find enough food when it invaded Russia.

How did Napoleon keep morale high?
He made sure that his volunteers were well trained, and was skilled at exploiting their revolutionary fervour. He created élite corps, such as the Imperial Guard, and introduced new decorations. He gave his soldiers booty and women. And he made the army open to talent – four of his marshals rose from the lowest ranks.

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