The Silk Route
The Mongols
There was one unforeseen consequence of the rise of the marauders along the Silk Route, attracted by the riches passing through: some of the nomadic tribes became skilled warriors, able to conquer rich cities and fertile lands and forge strong military empires.
The Silk Route gave rise to clusters of military states in north China, was vital to the spread of Buddhism, Islam and other religions into central Asia and China and led to the creation of the influential Khazar federation. And, most importantly, it brought about the Mongol empire with its political centres strung along the route: Khanbaliq (now Beijing) in north China, Karakhorum (now Harhorin) in eastern Mongolia, Samarkand in Transoxiana (now Uzbekistan), Tabriz in northern Iran, Astrakhan in the lower Volga region, Bahcesaray in the Crimea, Kazan in central Russia, Erzurum in eastern Anatolia.
Genghis Khan and Kublai Khan
These nomadic herdsmen of the grassy plains north of the Gobi desert and south of the forests of Siberia had perfected the arts of archery and horsemanship. With an eye to expanding their sphere of influence, they met in 1206 and elected as leader Temüjin (?1162-1227), who took the title Genghis Khan (‘universal ruler’).
Under his leadership, the Mongols rapidly conquered a huge part of Asia – an empire that enveloped the whole of central Asia, from China to Persia, and stretched as far west as the Mediterranean. It was maintained after Genghis' death, and reached its height under his grandson Kublai Khan (1215-94), who completed the conquest of China and was the founder and first emperor of the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368).
Pax Mongolica
During this time – sometimes known as the ‘Pax Mongolica’ – the Silk Route became a vital communication and trading link between different parts of the empire. Although perceived by Europeans as `uncivilised', the Mongols were more open to new ideas than their Western counterparts.
Kublai Khan, in particular, was quite tolerant of most religions. According to Marco Polo, he declared:
There are prophets who are worshipped and to whom everybody does reverence. The Christians say their god was Jesus Christ; the Saracens, Mohammad; the Jews, Moses; and the idolaters, Sakamuni Borhan [Buddha]; and I do honour and reverence to all four – that is, to him who is the greatest in heaven and more true, and him I pray to help me.
As a result of this imperial approval, a large number of people of different nationalities and creeds took part in the trade across Asia and settled in China. Initially the most popular religion was Taoism, but from the middle of the 13th century, Buddhist influence expanded – at first from India, but then increasingly the early Lamaist Buddhism of Tibet. Christianity made headway in China during this period, with the first Roman Catholic archbishopric set up in Beijing in 1307. In addition, Jews and Muslims lived in several of the major cities, though they do not seem to have made many converts.
During this time, the first Europeans ventured towards the lands of the `Seres'. The earliest were probably Franciscan friars who are reported to have visited the Mongolian city of Karakorum. The first Europeans to come to Kublai's court were northern European traders, who arrived in 1261. However, the most famous and best-documented visitor was the Italian Marco Polo, who lived there with his father and uncle from 1271 to 1295.
