1859
Theory of evolution

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Charles Darwin publishes his book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. In this, he argued for a natural rather than a divine origin of species, where in the struggle for existence, creatures with advantageous mutations would survive, evolving into new species. This is later described by the sociologist Herbert Spencer as 'survival of the fittest'. The book has been heralded by advance papers, and public curiosity is intense: copies sell out on the first day.

The theory sparks intense debate among scientists. It shocks the religious establishment and is fiercely rejected by the Church. Darwin, who has anticipated this hostility, has a circle of well-informed supporters who take part in discussions and debates.

The controversy is increased in 1871 when Darwin publishes The Descent of Man. In this, he suggests that all living creatures, including humans, are descended from a common ancestor. In the case of humans, this descent is via one of the higher primates (that is, apes). This is considered not only heretical but also, by many, to be in very bad taste.

The arguments go on for years, but by the end of the century, scientists broadly accept Darwin's theories and many religious organisations begin to moderate their views. However, even in the 21st century, quite a few places in the United States deny Darwin's arguments and teach 'creationism'. See also Darwinism and Evolution.

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