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Christian duty Victorian Britons are a God-fearing Protestant nation, although about a quarter of them don't bother to go to church. Christian duty is expressed through the high moral tone of public life and in the desire of the better-off to do good deeds (see Philanthropy below). In everyday life, it means that all classes try to be respectable and moral. Duty takes precedence over inclination, morality over pleasure. But Protestantism also means prejudice: in 1851, Roman Catholic bishops are banned from using their titles in Britain, and there is considerable prejudice against Jews. And moralism means repressing any mention of sexuality, which often leads to double standards. But Protestantism is not a monolith: by 1851, the Anglicans are almost matched in number by dissenting Nonconformists. The latter are partly excluded from public life and make up the bulk of the reforming Liberal party (see Liberalism below). Victorian Christians are often reformers. In the first part of the 19th century, puritanical evangelicals help abolish slavery and reform the electoral system (see The vote). Then, by the 1840s, the Oxford Movement – a revival of High-Church Anglicanism that mixes moral fervour with the desire to make worship beautiful – attempts to make the established Church more holy by recovering its Catholic roots. The leaders of the Oxford Movement – also known as the Tractarians because they publish pamphlets (tracts) – are John Keble (1792-1866), John Henry Newman (1801-90) and Edward Bouverie Pusey (1800-82). Darwinism The implications of the ideas of Charles Darwin eventually appeal to many Victorian minds. Taking some of his ideas about nature – for example, natural selection – and applying them to society means that 'evolution', 'progress' and 'survival of the fittest' gradually become popular notions. Above all, the majority of Victorians believe in progress. Evolution is preferred to revolution, progress to stagnation, and survival of the fittest is an excuse to ignore the poorer people in society. Social Darwinists argue that the poor have only themselves to blame for their poverty. By the end of the century, they also hold that, because the Britons are the fittest race and so the likeliest to survive, they have the right to colonise the world. This attitude is particularly popularised by Darwin's cousin Francis Galton (1822-1911), who becomes an influential proponent of eugenics, which he defines as 'the study of agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations, whether physically or mentally'. These ideas eventually led to the euthanasia practised by the Nazis, including the Holocaust. In Britain, the Social Darwinists' racism becomes a way of justifying imperialism (see below). By the 1880s, the struggle of the 'fittest' for survival is seen less in terms of individuals in the marketplace – competitive individualism – and more in terms of nations fighting for 'a place in the sun'. Free trade Also known as laissez-faire (French for 'leave well alone'). The idea of free trade – no taxes on making goods and no tariffs paid on goods crossing a nation's borders – is dear to Victorian manufacturers and industrialists. They believe that anything that impedes free trade will reduce their profits. This idea was articulated by the 18th-century Scottish economist Adam Smith, who argued in The Wealth of Nations (1776) that trade flourishes best when it is left entirely free of government interference. The most active believers in free trade in the mid-19th century are the Manchester School, whose leading lights are John Bright (1811-98) and Richard Cobden (1804-65). Such laissez-faire ideas – whose greatest exponent is John Stuart Mill – are developed into the Victorian theory that the state should not interfere in the life of the individual. In Mill's words: 'Laissez-faire, in short, should be the general practice: every departure from it, unless required by some great good, is a certain evil.' (See also Protectionism below.) Imperialism This means the colonisation of other countries, from nearby Ireland to distant India, by the British state. Usually, colonies are governed from the imperial centre, London, but some – for example, Canada and Australia – are granted political self-government. Other colonies, such as Hong Kong, are primarily examples of economic imperialism, but in almost all cases, trade is very important. At its height, in about 1900, British imperialism becomes an object of national pride, leading to jingoistic outbursts and crude racism. Laissez-faire See Free trade Liberalism The distinctive political theory of the Victorian age is liberalism. Until about 1868, radical liberals espouse a highly individualistic creed. Their slogan is 'Peace, retrenchment and reform' and their social ideal is laissez-faire (see Free trade above). This liberalism tries to limit government powers and redress the prejudice against Nonconformist Christians (see Christian duty above). As ever, liberals see themselves as being progressive and just. With W E Gladstone's government of 1868-74, however, liberalism is redefined, as radicals try to address the social problems of industrial society. They want to make life not only free of excessive government control, but better for the people. In Birmingham, Joseph Chamberlain embarks on a major set of social reforms. In central government, the cry is reform and social improvement. By the 1890s, liberalism changes yet again when Gladstone retires. Now, liberal leaders such as the earl of Rosebury want to prove that they can run the empire as efficiently as the Conservatives. Malthusianism The Victorians are worried by the steadily increasing population. There are widespread fears that food supplies will soon be outstripped by the demands of more mouths to feed. The most influential figure who argued this was the Reverend Thomas Malthus (1766-1834). In his writings – especially An Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) – he claimed that Britain was doomed to poverty and mass starvation unless it could limit its birth rate. His solution? Moral restraint – that is, marry late and even then have little sex. His pessimistic views continue to be expressed in many Victorian discussions about the problems of society. Philanthropy To prove their moral worth, well-off Victorians feel compelled to 'do good' (see Christian duty above). Examples of such philanthropy include the valiant efforts of Lord Shaftesbury to alleviate the harsh economic conditions by campaigning to limit by law the number of hours that women and children have to work. Other philanthropists become reformers who tackle public sanitation or the problems of the poor. On a more local level, individual gentlemen and concerned ladies distribute relief to the poor, set up hospitals and schools, or endow colleges, museums or libraries. Outstanding Victorian philanthropists include Octavia Hill, A B Walker, William Booth, Thomas Barnardo and Charles Booth. Progress See Darwinism Protectionism: 'Protection' means charging foreign traders a tax, or tariff, when their goods enter your country. In 1815, Parliament, which is dominated by the landed gentry, passed the Corn Laws, which placed a high tariff on foreign corn (a term for different types of grain, not just maize) thus making it unprofitable to import. The aim was to protect British farmers from being undersold by cheaper grain from the Continent. The Corn Laws, however, do not lead to prosperity, but to bread shortages and hunger for the working classes. The chief spokesmen of the Anti-Corn Law League, the mass movement that campaigns for their repeal in the late 1830s and early 1840s, are John Bright and Richard Cobden. In 1846, the Corn Laws are repealed by Robert Peel, and in 1853-60 Gladstone's free-trade budgets complete his work. (See also Free trade above.) Respectability See Christian duty Self-help The classic creed of the Victorians is self-improvement. Inspired by the writings of Samuel Smiles (1812-1904), whose massive bestseller Self-help was published in 1859, the idea is that 'heaven helps those who help themselves'. For society to progress, individuals have to make the most of their lives, proving their moral worth by working hard and doing good (see Philanthropy above). This Protestant work ethic is part of a liberal individualism that argues that society will get better if individuals concentrate on making themselves prosperous. These ideas are closely akin to those of free trade (see above). Victorian men, who set the agenda, believe that even men of humble origins can achieve great things if they avoid immorality and work hard to improve themselves. As Smiles writes: 'The spirit of self-help is the root of all genuine growth in the individual.' Utilitarianism This philosophy aims to tackle the problems created by the boom in Victorian industry, by judging everything in terms of its utility or usefulness. When examining any of Britain's institutions, such as the law, Parliament or the Church, utilitarians ask the question: Does it work? If the answer is no, then it has to be changed to make it more effective, or abolished. Utilitarianism is inspired by the ideas of Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) who believed that human beings act out of self-interest according to the pleasure–pain principle: what motivates people is the desire to avoid pain and to seek pleasure. To be successful, a social policy has to offer either reward or punishment. Utilitarians believe that social reform based on the pleasure–pain principle will ultimately achieve the 'greatest happiness of the greatest number'. Bentham's ideas are popularised by, among others, the prolific journalist and writer Harriet Martineau (1802-76) and the philosopher and social reformer John Stuart Mill. Victorian values See Christian duty, Darwinism, Free trade, Imperialism, Liberalism, Self-help, Utilitarianism Work ethic See Self-help |
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