In his 1531 bestseller about politics, The Book Named the Governor, Sir Thomas Elyot writes: 'Take away order from things, what then should remain?' Tudor England is obsessed with the idea of order and hierarchy, and terrified of anarchy and change.

People believe the world is made of a 'great chain of being', which stretches down from the angels to humans, and from humans to the beasts and plants. In this pyramid, society is unequal but everyone and everything has their divinely ordained place. The metaphors used to describe society – 'body politic' or 'tree of the commonwealth' – emphasise the organic unity of life.

This is how society is officially seen. In reality, of course, it is much more fluid, changeable and dangerous.

Social groups

In 1577, William Harrison, a country parson, begins his account of society by saying: 'We in England divide our people commonly into four sorts.' The first are gentlemen, which covers everyone from nobles to professionals; next come the citizens of the cities, who are free men with special privileges; next come the yeomen of the countryside; and finally the poor – day labourers, servants and vagrants, who have 'neither voice nor authority'.

In the 16th century, there are only about 55 peers. The rich and powerful have large households. For example, in 1521 the earl of Northumberland supports 166 people – family, servants and guests. In 1550, Sir William Petre – one of Elizabeth I's officials – has 21 servants at his home, Ingatestone Hall in Essex.

In the 1520s, there are about 200 knights, plus 4,000 or 5,000 lesser esquires and gentlemen. In all, only about 5% of the population are gentlemen, but their numbers are growing. 'Gentlemen' and 'gentlewomen' comprise the upper classes and professionals, who do not work with their hands for a living. The titles 'Mr' and 'Mrs' simply signify gentry status – 'Mrs' does not yet mean that a woman is married.

In between the two extremes of rich and poor are the so-called 'middling sort', who have saved enough to be comfortable but who could at any moment, through illness or bad luck, be plunged into poverty. They are yeomen farmers, tradesmen and craft workers. They have apprentices and take religion very seriously; usually, they are literate.

Many people move from country to town. In 1552, for example, 90% of London apprentice boys have been born in the country.

The vast majority of the population, between 80 and 90%, are referred to by the educated as the 'common people'. For most wage labourers, times are hard – and the number of the poor keeps growing. Occasionally, you can still find feudal bondsmen, little better than slaves.

What to wear

Medieval sumptuary laws, which prescribe what different social groups should wear, are still in force. For example, an Act of 1463 says that velvet and satin can only be worn by men above the rank of knight and their wives. Although the last sumptuary law is passed in 1597, such legislation is rarely enforced.

The Tudor century sees a great expansion in fashion, with dress becoming more elaborate and expensive. Gone are the sober gowns of men and the loose flowing dresses of women; in come padded doublets for men and farthingales for women. Jewels, ruffs, lace and embroidery are increasingly common. Such conspicuous consumption emphasises the distance between the rich and poor.

Sir Walter Ralegh has been known to pay £30 for a hat-band. For the same money, you could buy winter uniforms for seven officers, plus two pairs of shoes each.

Rich women try to colour their skin lily-white by using make-up made from white lead mixed with vinegar.

Everyone tries to cover their heads, with shawls or hats, and not wearing a hat marks you out. In fact, the punishment for women convicted of adultery involves standing up in church and repenting in public, with a bare head and dressed in a white sheet.

Customs

Tudor England is a hierarchical society based on deference and strict codes of behaviour. In 1561, Baldassar Castiglione's Book of the Courtier, an Italian manual for courtly manners, is published in English and influences generations of would-be nobles.

For the rich, status depends on show, and hospitality is important. Inside their grand houses, they entertain gentlemen and women. The poor are given a dole at the estate gates. Reputation depends on 'liberality' (generosity).

Low levels of literacy among the 'common people' mean that the clergyman and the pulpit are vital for the spread of knowledge.

Children must obey the Fourth Commandment: 'Honour thy father and thy mother.' They often kneel and ask their parents for their blessing. Parents believe that 'he who spareth the rod, hateth the child'. Discipline, obedience and manners are inculcated early.

In peasant households, from the age of about seven, children are helping hands. Girls aid their mothers, fetching water, building fires and watching younger siblings; boys herd cattle, tend geese and sheep and collect firewood.

Find out more

Top