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The way to get on in the Middle Ages is by being a 'perfect knight', a model of chivalrous behaviour which is a mixture of aggressive fighting skills and courtly behaviour towards noble women. The gallant knight in shining armour is a popular image found in paintings and literature. John of Salisbury, one of England's most learned men, writes that the 'function of orderly knighthood' is 'to protect the Church, to fight against treachery, to reverence the priesthood, to fend off injustice from the poor, to make peace in your own province, to shed blood for your brethren, and, if needs must, to lay down your own life'. Such behaviour is regarded as the height of chivalry, which arrives in England from France with the Norman invasion in 1066. Chivalry's high ideals are not always met, as the scholar Peter of Blois complains in the 1170s: 'The order of chivalry is mere disorder. For he is accounted stoutest and most illustrious among knights whose mouth is defiled with the most filthy language, whose oaths are most abominable, and who most despises good.' Some humble knights manage to scale the heights of power. When Henry III becomes king, he is still a minor so a council led by the Earl of Pembroke rules in his place. The earl's name is William Marshal, a former landless knight whose abilities as a combatant in tournaments (see below) – including setting a new stone-throwing record – bring him so much wealth and acclaim that he is given a title. 1066 is a pivotal date in English history. Not only does the Norman conquest introduce a new set of – essentially French – laws and customs, but it also marks the last date that an invading army takes control of the country. 'It is the habitation of strangers and the dominion of foreigners,' complains the chronicler William of Malmesbury in the early 1100s. The Normans introduce surnames, often the name of the place where you live (for example, William of Malmesbury). They also institute the idea of primogeniture – the first-born son is a noble's sole heir. Previously, all relatives got a look-in when the head of the household died, and estates were quickly reduced to fragments. William I and his descendants engage in almost constant warfare, much of it conducted in France, whose fortunes are closely tied to those of the English crown. To ensure that his nobles remain loyal while he is away, William places nearly all English lands in their hands: only four English landowners manage to hang on. According to chronicler Orderic Vitalis: 'Foreigners grew wealthy with the spoils of England while her own sons were either shamefully slain or driven as exiles to wander hopelessly through foreign kingdoms.' Not very chivalrous. Rebellions are frequent, as nobles try to out-do one another for power. The worst outbreaks of civil war occur in the early 12th century, during the wrangle for the throne between Stephen and Matilda, and in the Wars of the Roses. The issue which most often leads to conflict is the raising of taxes (which fall heavily on the nobility) to pay for the king's numerous foreign adventures. The other matter of concern is the king's choice of advisers, who are often generously rewarded at the expense of other nobles. Dissatisfaction on this matter reaches a peak under Edward II. The first major run-in results in King John signing the Magna Carta, a historic document which puts new limits on how the country is governed. After this, the monarch is obliged to give more power to his council, a collection of leading nobles. One of the earliest uses of the word 'parliament' to denote the king's council is in 1258 when the Provisions of Oxford are drawn up by supporters of Simon de Montfort and presented to Henry III. One clause requires Parliament to meet three times a year to discuss 'the common needs of the realm'. Councillors – the 'Lords' – also feel that they need the consent of the shires (represented by knights) and the clergy – the 'Commons' – because they pay taxes too. When de Montfort calls Parliament in 1265, he also invites representatives (burgesses) from the towns. This is chiefly a device to secure consent, but it encourages different feudal elements to find common ground. In the early days, the Commons are not always called at the same time as the Lords. Between 1271 and 1289, knights are represented at only four of the 19 parliaments and burgesses at only three. When they do both meet, they sit separately but confer on their decisions. At the 'Good Parliament' of 1376, both Lords and Commons meet the king, Edward III. The Commons elect a speaker, Sir Peter de la Mare, a knight from Hertfordshire. When some members of the Commons are refused entry to the meeting, he refuses to continue until they are admitted. The Parliament takes control of the supply of extra cash to the king, telling him that he must 'live off his own'. If he needs more money to fight wars, he's forced to sack any unpopular councillors. By the late 14th century, being a member of Parliament is considered an honour by the gentry. On the tomb of Geoffrey, Count of Anjou, an enamelled plate shows a shield of golden lions on a blue background. His grandson Richard I adopts the three lions on his great seal – to become England's national emblem of three lions passant guardant. By the 12th century, knights ride into battle covered in chainmail and wearing helmets which cover their faces. To show who they are, each displays a colourful emblem on their shield and on the linen surcoat they wear over their armour. This 'coat-of-arms' becomes a hereditary family symbol or a mark of a particular order of knighthood. Heraldry is the set of rules to which these emblems must conform: for example, different patterns denote whether the bearer is a first son or a third son. Edward III creates a new order of chivalry in 1337 when he invades France: the Knights of the Garter. There are initially 26 of them, including the king himself. The order's motto is 'Honi soit qui mal y pense' (Shame on him who thinks ill of it). Heraldic emblems are also used on the personal or family seals which authenticate official documents at a time when very few people can read. The designs are engraved on gold and then pressed on to wax to leave an imprint. Coats-of-arms are bestowed on faithful retainers by the monarch or nobility. But, as time wears on, all kinds of individuals start adopting them as status symbols. Upset by people getting ideas above their station, the gentry insist on regulation. In 1417, Henry V agrees to the appointment of heralds to oversee the granting of arms. In 1484, the College of Arms is established. At first, tournaments are almost like real battles, with up to 50 knights per side fighting it out from dawn to dusk – often to the death. In 1306, two knights are killed at a tournament to celebrate the knighthood of Prince Edward, later Edward II. Tournaments, which probably originate in France, become popular in England in the 12th century. Chronicler Matthew Paris refers to them as 'conflictus Gallicus'. They are banned in France in 1130 by Pope Innocent II for being too dangerous, but they continue regardless. Tournaments are a way of keeping knights trained for war as well as providing a spectator sport. King John and Henry III discourage them as they are often used as a cover for rallying opposition to the crown. But Richard I is a keen supporter and legalises them in 1194. As a result, they are more controlled: an entrance fee is charged, foreigners are banned and five venues are designated for them. In 1292, the Statute of Arms lays down a further set of rules, which limits the number of esquires attending the knights, because they often become rowdy, and permits only the use of blunted broadswords. During the 14th century, the punch-ups between groups of burly men give way to a more orderly contest between two champion knights – jousting. It is a way of impressing the noble ladies as well as a matter of competitive pride. Divided by a central barrier, knights ride towards each other brandishing 4-metre (13-foot) lances with the aim of unseating each other. Armour plate instead of chainmail makes it safer. • Visit our Castle Lover's Guide |
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