Politics in Rome is not for the fainthearted. Even at times of relative peace and prosperity, the whiff of conspiracy is forever in the air – and the penalties for finding oneself on the wrong side of any power struggle are severe. Emperors may often be capricious and cruel, but they have good reason to be wary of plots against them. After Augustus expires in AD 14, for example, not one of them dies a wholly peaceful and natural death until Vespasian in AD 79.

Kings and emperors
Rome does not like kings. Ever since the tyrant Tarquinius Superbus was overthrown in around 509 BC (see The decline and fall of the Roman Republic), its citizens have maintained an almost visceral hatred of what they have come to see as the 'eastern' institution of monarchy. A large part of the hostility to Cleopatra in Rome is because she is a queen – and Mark Antony's involvement with her implies a threat that he may seek to become king himself. Julius Caesar is assassinated because he takes too much power upon himself, even though he specifically rejects a royal title. Augustus, when he comes to power, is careful to maintain the formalities of the Republic even when he and his successors acquire more power than Tarquinius ever enjoyed (see Words you need to know).

The Senate
The place of the monarchy in the Roman Republic is taken by the Senate, the consuls and other public officials. The Senate, which existed under the monarchy, is originally selected on the basis of birth and rank. Later it is made up of men (still coming mainly from the same aristocratic families) who have previously held public office. By the 1st century BC, it numbers about 300 senators. Even when its ultimate authority has been quashed after the establishment – under Augustus – of the institution of emperor, the Senate and its associated public offices still govern the empire from day to day.

The consuls
After Tarquinius Superbus, two consuls, elected by the Senate, are introduced to replace the king as joint heads of state, with a series of checks and balances to ensure that neither can take absolute power. The consuls hold office for just one year and cannot be elected for two years in succession. They share the imperium, or supreme power, by alternating the ultimate decision-making authority month by month.

Dictators
At times of emergency, the Republic allows one man to be appointed dictator for six months at a time. (The protection offered by this time limit is later removed.) Julius Caesar holds the position of dictator, but the post becomes redundant once power has been centralised in the hands of an individual during Augustus's reign.

Other public offices
Other senior public offices include:

• Praetors, second in rank to consuls, who are responsible for various legal and juridical functions.

• Censors, who carry out censuses and maintain the electoral register for the Senate. They also have the power to suspend senators for immoral behaviour or failing in their public duties.

• Quaestors, who are responsible for financial administration.

• Aediles, who supervise public works and games.

• Proconsuls and propraetors, who are former consuls and praetors who have taken on the governorships of Roman provinces.

The orator Cicero – whose thunderous speeches (known as the 'Philippics') help rally senatorial opposition to Mark Antony after Julius Caesar's assassination in 44 BC – is a good example of how a senator can progress up the cursus honorum, or political career ladder, to achieve the highest office. In 75 BC, he becomes quaestor, followed by aedile (in 69 BC), praetor (66 BC), consul (63 BC) and subsequently proconsul in Cilicia. High office is no guarantee of personal safety, however: he is killed after the Triumvirate takes power in 43 BC.

Tribunes and the people
The nearest that Rome gets to truly democratic politics is during the late 2nd century BC, when the brothers Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus (known as the Gracchi) stand up for the interests of the plebeians, or ordinary citizens, against the Senate. Their power base is the Popular Assembly, in which all Roman citizens have a vote (although it has never before challenged senatorial power), and the elected position of tribune. The tribunate, held at different times by both men, was established to defend the rights of the plebeians – it has the right to veto decisions made by the Senate.

Tribunes are supposedly inviolate – they can't be touched. But Tiberius Gracchus is murdered and Gaius commits suicide following a massacre of his supporters: real power lies elsewhere. When Augustus comes to power, he allows the position of tribune to continue, but he takes all the powers upon himself.

The emperor takes over
Augustus (and some other emperors after him) is careful to maintain the proprieties of senatorial rule, even when all meaningful power has been invested in him. His imperium, or supreme power, is first granted and then renewed at regular intervals by the Senate, from which he accepts initially only the titles of Princeps ('First Citizen') and Imperator ('Victorious General').

'After I had stamped out the civil wars, and at a time when by universal consent I was in absolute control of everything, I transferred the res publica [ie constitutional government] from my own charge to the discretion of the Senate and people of Rome. For this service, I was given the name 'Augustus' by a decree of the Senate.' Augustus, from the inscription outside his mausoleum in Rome

But as well as the powers of the tribunes, he also takes on the authority of Pontifex maximus (head of state religion); he has direct command over the Praetorian Guard, which controls Italy; and he makes Egypt his personal fiefdom, giving him control over the supply of grain to Rome. By the time of Augustus's death in AD 14, the Republic is finished, although its political institutions and public offices remain in place until the collapse of the western empire in the 5th century.

From AD 14, then, dynastic politics, or quarrels over the imperial succession, are most important. In this respect, the army, and particularly the Praetorian Guard, are crucial: he who controls the legions controls Rome. By the 3rd century AD, when 26 different military leaders have come to power in 50 years, only army commanders become emperor, almost invariably violently.

Patrons and clients
Politics in Rome is centred around wealthy patrons. There is no such thing as a political party, only parties of supporters of particular individuals. Indeed, the most important of all social relationships in imperial Rome is that between patron and client.

Every morning, a rich man's clients turn up at the house of their dominus, or lord, to greet him formally. Appearance, dress and behaviour are all formalised: the ceremonial nature of the relationship is as important as what actually takes place. The reward for these early-morning visits might be just a few coins or a bit of food. In the case of those a little higher up the social scale, such as poets, performers or tradesmen, an invitation to dinner or other social occasion might be forthcoming. The patron, in turn, then rushes off to his dominus to carry out the same social formalities and obligations.

In this way, business and social relations, contracts, appointments, marriages and politics all revolve around the patron/client relationship, which operates across social classes and at all levels of Roman society.

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