aristocracy

A hereditary ruling class. The term comes from the Greek aristokratia, 'rule by the best.' However, how 'the best' has been identified throughout history has varied from the strongest, the richest, or the most politically powerful, to the cleverest, or the most moral. When the children and later descendants of 'the best' inherited the latter's position in society, the implication was that whatever made the original aristocrat 'the best' had somehow been passed down through the generations. Today 'aristocracy' refers to the self-perpetuating top level of any stratified society. (See hoi polloi below.)

Delian League

A confederation (loose alliance) of Greek states formed in 478BC to provide protection against the Persians. It was initially based on the sacred island of Delos, hence its modern name, but in about 454BC the treasury was re-located to the increasingly powerful Athens. Allies who attempted to leave the coalition soon found themselves forced back in by the Athenians. What was once a mutual defence pact had been transformed into an Athenian empire. After defeating Athens in 405, the Spartans disbanded the league. It was revived soon after as fear of Sparta spread, but as Sparta declined, so did the league. It was finally crushed in 338 by Philip II of Macedonia, father of Alexander the Great.

democracy

Government by the people, carried out directly or through elected representatives. The word 'democracy' comes from the Greek demos (people) and kratos (power or grip). This political philosophy originated in Athens in the late 6th century BC, when clan leader Cleisthenes appealed to the common people to help him eliminate the tyrants ruling the city-state. However, the Greek experiment of direct popular rule, which lasted just 150 years, excluded 90 per cent of the population. You were barred from taking part in it if you were female or a slave or too young or if either of your parents were born outside the city-state.

hoi polloi

Greek phrase meaning 'the many,' which has come to mean 'the mob,' 'the rabble' or, more politely, 'the masses.' The hoi polloi are the direct opposite of an aristocracy (see above). The term was first used in c. 460BC by the ancient Greek statesman Pericles in a funeral oration he delivered to honour those who had died in the Peloponnesian War against Sparta.

liberty

A term used to describe various forms of personal freedom – for instance, personal and political freedom, freedom of religion and speech. In Western civilisation, the tendency has been for people to have greater liberty as the centuries have passed. However, this can change abruptly given certain circumstances. For instance, in England, the Habeas Corpus Act of 1679 gave people the right not to be held in prison indefinitely and without charge; in the UK in 1971, internment – imprisonment without charge or trial – was introduced in Northern Ireland in response to the 'Troubles.'

mystery cult, mystery

Any religion or other belief system based on secret wisdom. The word 'mystery' comes from the ancient Greek mysteria (initiation), and it was in classical Greece that mystery cults reached their peak. The most famous was the Athenians' Eleusinian mysteries, which were centred on the myth of the rape of Persephone by Hades and her return to her mother, the goddess Demeter, for eight months of the year – an allegory of the cycle of nature. Athens jealously guarded admission to the mysteries, and those who revealed the secret rites risked the death penalty.

papyrus

To turn the reed Cyperus papyrus into a writing surface, it is split, beaten and pasted together in two layers placed at right angles to each other. It first appeared in the 5th Dynasty of the Old Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2465–c. 2325BC), becoming so widespread there that a stylised version of the reed's flower and leaves became a symbol for Egypt itself. The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus is one of the most famous. Papyrus remained the main writing surface throughout the Mediterranean during the Greek and Roman civilisations and beyond, until paper was introduced in the 8th century AD.

ritual

The prescribed order of a religious ceremony, or the magical, supernatural or religious ceremonies or rites carried out in a place of worship. In archaeology, the term is sometimes wrongly used to explain unfamiliar patterns in material culture. However, in ancient civilisations, there was no formal boundary between what was ritual and what was secular or rational belief. In ancient Greece, for example, there was no separate word for 'religion': ritual was part of everyday life and the political process.

symposium

In ancient Greece, a symposium was a party at which aristocratic men, reclining on couches, drank (the word comes from the Greek verb sympotein, 'to drink together'), ate, recited poetry, listened to music and discussed philosophical and political issues. In about 384BC, Plato wrote a philosophical dialogue entitled The Symposium, in which the nature of love is discussed at such a gathering. Today, the term 'symposium' simply refers to any meeting or conference at which multiple presentations are given on the same topic.

totalitarian government

Government in which the political authority exercises complete control over all aspects of life. The life of the individual is completely subordinated to the state and all opposition is ruthlessly suppressed.

trireme

A warship used primarily by the ancient Greeks. Trireme means 'three oars', and these ships were distinctive for having their oarsmen – some 170 in each vessel – ranged in three tiers on each side. This muscle power allowed them to reach speeds of up to 7 knots (8mph), and their twin rudders gave them great manoeuvrability. The Greeks' fleet of some 200 triremes was crucial to their victory over the Persian navy at the battle of Salamis in September 480BC.

tyrant

The term tyrannos, meaning 'king', comes from ancient Lydia (now north-west Turkey) and initially referred to fairly unaggressive rulers. However, in classical Greece, tyrants started to live up to the name as we now understand it. In Athens in the 7th and 6th century BC, 'tyrant' came to mean an absolute monarch who has seized power illegally.

witch hunt

This term was originally used to describe searches for witches or evidence of witchcraft, which were most common in Europe and, later, the American colonies from about 1450 to the end of the 1600s. However, today 'witch hunt' generally means an investigation into 'subversive' activities that is actually a cover for a campaign of harassment and worse against those with differing views. Such witch hunts have been occurring for millennia, from Socrates in 5th-century BC Athens to the House Un-American Activities Committee hearings of the 1950s, and beyond. See The Devil in Essex (part of Channel 4's history website) for a comparison of old and new witch hunts.