Who are the Maya?

The Maya are a Central American people who live in Guatemala, Belize, Honduras and Mexico. They thrived for centuries and, like the ancient Egyptians, built pyramids and huge monuments and wrote down their history and beliefs in hieroglyphics, creating the first comprehensive writing system in the region. The Maya, with their mix of intellectual precision and artistic imagination, were one of the world's greatest ancient civilisations.

However, with the arrival of the European invaders, led by the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés in 1517-19, the ancient Maya were decimated by disease and war, and their culture was almost destroyed.

For centuries afterwards, Europeans saw the Maya as an enigma because the ruins of their civilisation had disappeared, hidden in dense jungle. Even when these were discovered by archaeologists and adventurers in the 1840s, the Maya remained obscure because their writing system could not be read. Although examples of their hieroglyphics had been sent to Europe by Cortés, they were not deciphered until the 1950s, when Russian linguists broke the code.

Since then, the life of the Maya has slowly been revealed.

Where they came from and how they developed

Although the first pyramids built in the Guatemalan lowlands at sites such as Tikal and Uaxactun were erected in about 200 BC, most archaeologists believe that classic Maya culture began around AD 300 as an offshoot of a nearby Mexican civilisation. The central Mexican city of Teotihucan traded with the Maya and its influence can be seen at Tikal. In fact, the collapse of Teotihucan in the 6th century caused an abrupt slowdown in Maya building that lasted for several decades.

Between AD 600 and 800, the Maya civilisation flourished vigorously in the southern lowlands of Central America. Great city-states, such as Tikal and Palenque, were the focus of religion, administration and the arts, and teemed with people, with the surrounding land intensely farmed to feed them. Major temples, palaces, plazas and ballcourts were built.

These southern lowland cities collapsed in the 9th century, for reasons that remain obscure but were probably due to overpopulation and harvest failure. However, the northern lowlands continued to prosper. During this time, there was more Mexican influence on sites such as Chichén Itzá and Uxmal, notable for their flamboyant architecture. Then, after a couple of centuries, these too declined.

When the great Maya centres were abandoned, they fell into ruin and were overwhelmed by the rainforest. In 1523, an expedition led by Pedro de Alvarado, one of Cortés's companions, arrived in Guatemala. By this time, the Maya civilisation was already much less rich and powerful than it had been, and it was conquered by the Spanish within four years.

How they lived

Unlike the Aztecs, the Maya civilisation was never united under one governing body. Instead, it was organised into large, independent city-states, each with up to 50,000 inhabitants who shared similar beliefs and practices. As rivals, these city-states were always at war, fighting for riches and to capture victims for human sacrifice.

As well as their highly developed literacy, the Maya created a complex calendar system, which included a 'Long Count' divided into five cycles, along with a 260-day ritual cycle and a 365-day solar calendar.

The Maya also had a comprehensive knowledge of astronomy. They charted the movements of the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and the constellations through the night sky, and marked the position of the Sun along the horizon.

As well as creating art objects, they also played music on ocarinas, whistles and wind instruments – dance was a key part of their ceremonies.

What they believed

The Maya had a complicated collection of deities who were worshipped and to whom human sacrifices were offered. Rulers were believed to be descendants of the gods, and because of this, their blood was seen as the ideal sacrifice, either through personal bloodletting or the sacrifice of royal captives.

The Maya saw the universe as divided into many levels, above and below the Earth. For instance, after death, the soul was believed to go to the underworld, where sinister gods tested and tricked the unfortunate visitors. Many of these ideas were represented by highly skilled Maya artists, who were masters of relief carving in stone and wood, wall painting and the making of fine ceramics.

What they ate

Maize was the main food. Its kernels were boiled, ground and formed by hand into flat tortillas, cooked on a griddle traditionally supported on three stones. So important was maize that the plant became a symbol for human beings.

The addition of limes made the Maya diet healthier. And as well as these and maize, chilli peppers, beans and squash were grown on family farms.

Both the lowlands and well-irrigated terraced hillsides were cultivated. Agriculture was based on slash-and-burn farming, which meant that a field was used for 2-5 years and then burnt and left fallow for 5-15 years. This system came under strain when a rapidly growing population put immense pressure on farmers to supply ever more food.

What they built

From the beginning, the centres of Maya cities contained large architectural complexes, with temples and plazas for ceremonies. Huge limestone structures, faced with lime stucco, were the hallmark of Maya architecture.

The Maya developed several unique building innovations, including the corbel arch – made by placing building blocks on opposite sides until they met in the centre. Their massive stepped pyramids sometimes included tombs. A honeycombed roof towered above many structures, often covered in painted plaster with signs and announcements.

Most Maya sites also had complex buildings that probably served as royal palaces as well as government offices. Significant events, such as accessions, the capture or sacrifice of royal victims and the completion of calendar cycles, were recorded on stelae (tall stone monuments).

Who ruled who?

The Maya had a distinct class system, led by dynasties of hereditary kings who claimed descent from the gods.

Between the ruling class and the ordinary farmers and labourers who made up the huge bulk of the population, there was an educated nobility that included scribes, artists and architects. Evidence of their skill and innovation can be seen in the surviving artefacts of stone, stucco, jade, bone, pottery, obsidian and flint. However, few women were allowed to read or write.

There was also a class of astronomer priests who made detailed observations of the heavens and developed the complex calendars.

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