The Punic Wars are a story of hatred, imperial ambition and a rivalry that shaped
the future of the Mediterranean world. It was a closely fought conflict between
two very different types of state, and only one survived the struggle. Here are
some of the reasons why.
Naval rivalry
The Carthaginians had fought many wars before, but they weren’t prepared for the total war that Rome forced upon them. They were an established naval power, but their fleet was designed primarily for trade. Rome quickly transformed itself from a landlocked city-state to become a naval entity, its fleet designed from the outset for war. Now Carthage had an enemy that was at least its equal.
Determined to fight Carthage for control of Sicily, Rome built a fleet with astonishing speed – but they had help. It was Carthage’s bad luck that, early in the First Punic War, the Romans captured a Carthaginian ship and ingeniously used it as a template to create their entire fleet.
The ships – quinqueremes, with crews of 300 men – were fitted with rams. Made from timber and encased in metal, these were fixed to the keel and used to rupture the hulls of enemy ships, causing water to pour in. Ships could also grapple with enemy vessels, then overrun them, leading to hand-to-hand combat.
Although the performance of the Carthaginian ships was superior for most of the
war, and they had better trained crews, Rome was still able to inflict a series
of devastating defeats.
A society of individuals
The Carthaginians had little collective identity. They comprised a network of cities whose wealth, and allegiances, were based on trade. Political unity only went as far as the economic interests of each city demanded. Even Utica, the Phoenician settlement near Carthage, was not loyal to the Carthaginians. In fact, it may never have reconciled itself to Carthaginian supremacy. Utica backed the mercenary army in the revolt against Carthage in 240 BC, and even supported Rome in the campaign of 146 BC.
While Rome had a professional citizen army, Carthage relied on paid mercenaries. Hannibal used Numidian, Spanish and Gallic soldiers. It is remarkable just how effective the Punic army was under his leadership, but then Hannibal was exceptional. Carthage was unforgiving to less successful commanders. Those who didn’t commit suicide were usually sentenced to death, and even Hannibal was sent into exile.
Rome was a cohesive society, demanding total loyalty. Roman ruins are dominated by public spaces, with the forum at the heart of any town. Punic culture emphasised private space. At
Kerkouane, you can still see how each house had a private bathroom with a complex
plumbing system (2,000 years before the equivalent appeared anywhere in northern
Europe). Compare this to the public bathhouses of Rome, which were a key part
of political and civic life.
Hannibal’s great victories – and
his defeat
Hannibal came closer than anyone to defeating the Romans at the peak of their powers. He gathered intelligence, planned remarkable military strategies and motivated his armies brilliantly. Yet despite his incredible victories, and the devastating losses he inflicted (60,000 Roman soldiers perished at Cannae), his campaign finished in defeat at Zama.
Hannibal was never defeated in a single important battle during 16 years in Italy, but the momentum of his early victories didn’t last. He had anticipated that many cities, with grievances against Rome, would readily switch allegiance. However, although he was successful in persuading Gallic tribes to support him, few Italian cities defected to the Punic cause. Rome was particularly well equipped to fight a war on several fronts, which left the Carthaginians struggling to recruit enough mercenaries.
Without a major port under Punic control, getting fresh supplies of men and food
was a logistical nightmare. Apathy among the Carthaginian leadership also worked
against Hannibal: only one draft of reinforcements ever reached him in Italy.
Capturing Sicily could have provided grain as well as ports, but Rome retained
control of the island.
Rome’s new way
Following the terrible losses endured by the Roman army in the Second Punic War, Rome was determined to seek revenge. Carthage didn’t represent any serious threat, but Rome needed little excuse to go to war in 149 BC.
This is a clear demonstration of the differing attitudes of the two states. Carthage only sought war when it was necessary, pursuing conflict as long as it was economically advantageous to do so. Roman society was inherently military, and wars were pursued aggressively, with total victory the only possible outcome. Defeated states were required to reimburse the cost of the conflict and become Rome’s loyal allies.
Rome’s assimilation of its former enemies was a brilliant achievement, and one reason why Hannibal was so unsuccessful at persuading Italian cities to support him. They had become part of the Roman world, with a depth of loyalty that the Carthaginians simply couldn’t understand.
In Rome’s aggressive bid to become the ruling power of the Mediterranean, the
Carthaginians were its most celebrated victims. But they weren’t alone – Rome
and its mighty military machine took on one state after another. In the same year
that Carthage was destroyed, Rome also conquered and destroyed Corinth.
